Class 7 Temperature Measurement
Class 7 Temperature Measurement
Class 6
Introduction
Instruments to measure temperature can be divided into separate classes according to the physical principle on which they operate.
Thermography
Thermal expansion
Acoustic thermometry
Color change
temperature devices (or RTDs), rely on the principle that the resistance of a
R Ro 1 a1T a2T 2 anT n
If the square and higher order terms are neglected, the equation
becomes:
R Ro 1 a1T
This equation is approximately true over a limited temperature range for
Platinum thermometers are made in two forms, as a coil wound on a mandrel and as a
film deposited on a ceramic substrate. The nominal resistance at 0°C is typically 100Ω or
1000 Ω. Sensitivity is 0.385 Ω /°C (100Ω type) or 3.85Ω/°C (1000 Ωtype). A high nominal
resistance of connecting leads has less effect on measurement accuracy. However, cost
oxides of the iron group of metals such as chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and
nickel. Normally, thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. the resistance
The major advantages of thermistors are their relatively low cost and their small size.
This size advantage means that the time constant of thermistors is small, although the
size reduction also decreases its heat dissipation capability and so makes the self heating
effect greater.
in the form of either a varying current (typically 1 μA/K) or varying voltage (typically 10 mV/K). Current forms are normally used with a digital
voltmeter that detects the current output in terms of the voltage drop across a 10 kΩ resistor. In diodes, the forward voltage across the
device varies with temperature. Output from a typical diode package is in the microamp range. Diodes have a small size, with good output
Semiconductor devices, consisting of either diodes or integrated circuit transistors have the advantage of being relatively inexpensive, but
one difficulty that affects their use is the need to provide an external power supply to the sensor. Although the devices have a very low cost
and linearity, they only have a limited measurement range from -50°C to +150°C. Their inaccuracy is typically ±3%, which limits their range of
application. However, they are widely used to monitor pipes and cables, where their low cost means that it is feasible to mount multiple
Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert a heat
gradient into electricity. They are inexpensive, interchangeable, are supplied with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range
of temperatures. In contrast to most other methods of temperature measurement, thermocouples are self powered and require no
external form of excitation. The main limitation with thermocouples is accuracy and system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C)
Metal A
T T 0 10
H r
Metal B
Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
Thermocouples are manufactured from various combinations of
the base metals copper and iron, the base-metal alloys of alumel
temperature one of the junctions—normally the cold junction—is maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other
Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory calibration, is not convenient for most measurement and
control applications. Instead, they incorporate an artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or
diode to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to minimize any
temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate
correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits are designed to output a compensated
the e.m.f. output for each standard type of thermocouple is given in the columns to the right. The tables are given with reference to a
the e.m.f. output for each standard type of thermocouple is given in the columns to the right.
Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
For analysis purposes, it is useful to represent the thermocouple by its
equivalent electrical circuit. The e.m.f. generated at the point where the
E1, and the point is known as the hot junction. The temperature of the hot
The e.m.f. generated at the hot junction is measured at the open ends of the
measuring instrument. This modifies the equivalent circuit There are now three junctions in the system and
consequently three voltage sources, E1, E2 and E3, with the point of measurement of the e.m.f.
The measuring system is completed by connecting the extension leads to the voltage measuring instrument,
this introduces two further e.m.f.-generating junctions E4 and E5 into the system The net output e.m.f. T
r
measured (Em) is then given by:
Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
It is usual to choose materials for the extension lead wires such that the
thermocouples. To analyse the effect of connecting the extension leads to the voltage-
measuring instrument, a thermoelectric law known as the law of intermediate metals can
be used.
This states that the e.m.f. generated at the junction between two metals or alloys A and C
is equal to the sum of the e.m.f. generated at the junction between metals or alloys A and
T
B and the e.m.f. generated at the junction between metals or alloys B and C, where all r
junctions are at the same temperature. This can be expressed more simply as:
Thermoelectric effect sensors
(thermocouples)
Suppose we have an iron–constantan thermocouple connected to a meter with copper
Thus, the effect of connecting the thermocouple extension wires to the copper leads to
the meter is cancelled out, and the actual e.m.f. at the reference junction is equivalent to
measuring instrument is the sum of only two e.m.f.s, consisting of the e.m.f. generated at the hot
junction temperature E1 and the e.m.f. generated at the reference junction temperature Eref. The
Eref can be calculated if the temperature of the reference junction is known. In practice, this is often
temperature of 0°C. The data in the tables are valid when the reference junction is exactly at this
temperature.
Example
If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E ) thermocouple is 13.419mV
with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
Example 1: Solution
If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E ) thermocouple is 13.419mV
with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
The appropriate column in the tables shows that this corresponds to a hot junction temperature
of 200°C.
Example 1: Solution
If the e.m.f. output measured from a chromel–constantan (Type E )hermocouple is 13.419mV
with the reference junction at 0°C, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
The appropriate column in the tables shows that this corresponds to a hot junction temperature
of 200°C.
Example 2
If the measured output e.m.f. for a chromel–constantan thermocouple (reference junction at
0°C) was 10.65 mV, what is the temperature at the hot junction?
Example 2. Solution
If the measured output e.m.f. for a chromel–constantan thermocouple (reference junction at 0°C) was 10.65 mV, what is the temperature at
It is necessary to carry out linear interpolation between the temperature of 160°C corresponding to an e.m.f. of 10.501mV shown in the tables
and he temperature of 170°C corresponding to an e.m.f. of 11.222 mV. This interpolation procedure gives an indicated hot junction
temperature of 162°C.
Non-zero reference junction temperature
Maintaining the reference junction at 0°C is not a straightforward matter, particularly if the environmental temperature around the
measurement system is relatively hot. In consequence, it is common practice in many practical applications of thermocouples to maintain the
reference junction at a non-zero temperature by putting it into a controlled environment maintained by an electrical heating element.
In order to still be able to apply thermocouple tables, correction then has to be made for this non-zero reference junction temperature using
a second thermoelectric law known as the law of intermediate temperatures. This states that:
where: E(Th, T0) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th and T0, E(Th,Tr) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Th and Tr,
and E(Tr,T0) is the e.m.f. with the junctions at temperatures Tr and T0, Th is the hot junction measured temperature, T0 is 0°C and Tr is the
From the tables, E(Tr,T0) = 4.983mV. Now applying the equation above:
temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system, the instrumentation engineer has inadvertently interchanged
the extension wires from the thermocouple. The ends of the extension wires are held at a reference temperature of 0°C and the
output e.m.f. measured is 12.1mV. If the junction between the thermocouple and extension wires is at a temperature of 40°C,
what temperature of fluid is indicated and what is the true fluid temperature?
Metal C
Metal A Alumel
0 °C
T T
H L 40 °C
Metal B
15 Chromel
15
0 10
0 10
Example 4. Solution
Chromel–alumel thermocouple with chromel–alumel extension wires
temperature?
Alumel
0 °C
40 °C
T =?
H 15
Chromel
0 10
Example 4. Solution
Summing e.m.f.s around the loop:
Interpolating from the thermocouple tables, this indicates that the true fluid temperature is 374.5°C.
E Alumel
3
Chromel
0 °C
E
1 40 °C
T =?
H Alumel 15 Chromel
E
0 10
2
Radiation thermometers
All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function
E kT 4
Radiation thermometers
The power spectral density of this emission varies with
As the magnitude of the radiation varies with temperature, Ultra Violet Visible Light
beyond 600°C
Radiation thermometers
Infra Red
instrument is that there is no contact with the hot body while its
of the energy between the emitting body and the radiation detector. Energy Infra Red
increased until its color is the same as the hot body: under these conditions the filament apparently disappears when
visible spectrum, i.e. where the measured body glows a certain shade of red according to the temperature. This limits the
induced error of ± 10°C arising out of the difficulty in judging the moment when the filament ‘just’ disappears. Measurement accuracy can be
improved somewhat by employing an optical filter within the instrument that passes a narrow band of frequencies of wavelength around 0.65
μm corresponding to the red part of the visible spectrum. This also extends the upper temperature measurable from 5000°C in unfiltered
instruments up to 10 000°C.
Thermography (thermal imaging)
Thermography, or thermal imaging, involves
radiation detectors with a very fast response are required, and only
dark area
temperature.
thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
The liquid-in-glass thermometer is a well-known temperature-measuring instrument that is used in a wide
range of applications. The fluid used is usually either mercury or colored alcohol, and this is contained within
As the temperature rises, the fluid expands along the capillary tube and the meniscus level is read against a
calibrated scale etched on the tube. The process of estimating the position of the curved meniscus of the
fluid against the scale introduces some error into the measurement process and a measurement inaccuracy
Industrial versions of the liquid-in-glass thermometer are normally used to measure temperature in the range
If two strips of different metals are bonded together, any temperature change will cause the strip to bend, as this is the only way in which the
differing rates of change of length of each metal in the bonded strip can be accommodated.
Bimetallic thermometer
If the magnitude of bending is measured, the bimetallic device becomes a thermometer. For
such purposes, the strip is often arranged in a spiral or helical configuration, as this gives a
relatively large displacement of the free end for any given temperature change.
The measurement sensitivity is increased further by choosing the pair of materials carefully
such that the degree of bending is maximized, with Invar (a nickel–steel alloy) or brass being
commonly used.
The system used to measure the displacement of the strip must be carefully designed. Very
little resistance must be offered to the end of the strip, otherwise the spiral or helix will
temperature rise cause a rise in the pressure of the fluid. The change in pressure of the fluid is measured by a suitable pressure transducer such as
the Bourdon tube. This transducer is located remotely from the bulb and connected to it by a capillary tube.
Pressure thermometers
The need to protect the pressure-measuring instrument from the environment
where the temperature is being measured can require the use of capillary tubes
up to 5m long, and the temperature gradient, and hence pressure gradient, along
the tube acts as a modifying input that can introduce a significant measurement
error.
between -250°C and +2000°C and their typical inaccuracy is ±0.5% of full-scale
reading. However, the instrument response has a particularly long time constant.