Unit II- Methods of Data Collection, Organization and Presentation

Learning Objectives
• At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Identify the different methods of data organization and presentation

2. Understand the criterion for the selection of a method to organize and present data

3. Identify the different methods of data collection and criterion that we use to select
a method of data collection

4. Define a questionnaire, identify the different parts of a questionnaire and indicate

the procedures to prepare a questionnaire
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 Sources of Data

• There are different sources of data on health and health related conditions

• The major sources are census, vital statistics, health service records, morbidity
and mortality records etc…

• The information obtained from these sources are used for health Planning,
programming and evaluation of health services

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 1. Census
• Census is a periodic count or enumeration of a population
• necessary for accurate description of population’s health status
• the principal sources of denominator for rates of disease and death
• Census data provides information on: -
• Size and composition of a population
• The forces that determines these variability
• The trends anticipated in the future
• General information about sociodemographic variables

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Types of census

• Defacto: - Counts persons according to their location at a time of

enumeration but excludes those who are temporarily away

• Dejure: - Counts persons according to their usual place of residence

and exclude temporary visits.

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 Census….
• Advantages of Census:
• Health planning and programming
• Accurate description of the health status of a population
• Census data are utilized in a number of ways for planning the welfare of the
people even out of health
• Disadvantages of census
• Conducting nationwide, therefore, very expensive
• Generates a large amount of data that takes long period to compile and analyze
• Carried out every 10years, therefore, it can’t assess yearly changes

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 Common Errors in Census Data
• Omission and over enumeration

• Miss reporting of age – over/ under estimation

• Over stating of the status within the occupation

• Under reporting of births due to problem of reference period/ memory lapse

• Under reporting of deaths due to memory lapse and tendency not to report on
deaths particularly on neonatal and infant deaths

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 Essential Characteristics of Census
• Individuality: - complete independent information of every inhabitants
• Universality: - all individuals of the population of all areas without omission or
repetition must be enumerated
• Simultanencity: - All individuals must be enumerated within shorter period of
time at a given moment called the censual period
• Periodicity: - must be taken at a regular time interval such as every ten years
• Well defined: - A well-defined geographic area and a clear period of time

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 2. Registration of Vital Statistics
• Continuous process of recording vital events at the time of their
occurrence with the permanent need of human sources
• Vital events include; birth, death, migration, marriage, divorce, widow, etc.

• A certificate is issued for every death and birth

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 Characteristics of vital registration (4 C’s)
• Comprehensive → all births, deaths and other vital events should be registered

• Compulsory by law→ should be enforced by law

• Compiled centrally → can serve as a source of information

• Continuous→ it should be an ongoing process

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Vital statistics….
Advantages of Vital Statistics

• The data obtained is used to calculate:

• Birth Rate
• Death rate
• Migration rate
• Cause specific mortality rate

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 Vital statistics….
Disadvantages

• Forgetting → since it is ongoing process either due to carelessness or due to

shortage of time it has a chance of forgetting

• Inappropriate registration → either due to lack of knowledge or carelessness, one

can register inappropriately

• Lack of denominator

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 3. Health Service Records
• These include monthly, quarterly and annual reports of death, service etc and
reports on notifiable disease epidemic reports etc.

• Compiled, analyzed and published by ministry of health

• The major source of health information in Ethiopia

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Health service records…
• Advantages of Health Service Records
• Easily obtainable
• Available at low cost
• Continuous system of reporting
• Causes of illness and death available

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 Health service records…..
• Disadvantages
• Lack of completeness
• Lack of representativeness
• Lack of denominator;- catchment area is not known in majority of cases
• Lack of uniformity in quality
• Diagnosis varies across the level of health institutions
• Lack of compliance with reporting
• Irregularity and incompleteness of published compilations

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 Data Collection Methods
• Data collection methods or techniques allow as systematically collect data
about our objects of study (people, objects, and phenomenon)

• Various data collection techniques can be used such as:-

1. Observation

2. interview

3. Using available information

4. Focus group discussion

5. Others -- - life stories, case studies.

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 Method…..
1. Observation
• a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and recoding
behaviors to getting specified information.

• Advantage: gives relatively more accurate data

• Disadvantage: Investigators or observers own bias, desires; needs more skilled

human power and resources during the use of high level machine

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 Method….
2. Interviews and self administered questionnaire

• the most commonly used research data collection techniques.

Face to face and telephone interviews

• Advantages- interviewer can stimulate and maintain the

respondent’s interest
• provide explanation or alternative wording

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 Method….
• Disadvantage:
• expensive
• Require skilled person ( interviewer)
• Common problems may include
• Language barrier
• Lack of adequate time
• Expenses
• Inadequately trained and experienced staff
• Invasion of privacy
• Suspicion
• Cultural norms
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 Type of Questions Used for Data Collection
1. Open ended questions: - permit free responses that should be recorded in the
respondents own words.
• The respondent is not given any possible answers to chosen from

• Such questions are useful to obtain information on: -

• Facts with which the researchers is not familiar

• Opinions, attitudes, and suggestion of informants or

• Sensitive issues

• E.g. can you describe exactly the causes of malnutrition in Ethiopia?

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 Type of Questions Used for Data Collection…
2. Closed ended questions: - offer a list of possible options or answers from which the
respondents must choose

• one should try to offer a list of options that are exhaustive and mutually exclusive

• Keep the number of options as few as possible

• E.g. what is your marital status?

• Single □

• Married □

• Separated
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 Steps in designing a questionnaire
• Step -1- Content

• Take the objectives, conceptual framework and

variables as starting point
• Decide what questions will be needed to measure,
define study variables and reach study objectives

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 Steps in designing a questionnaire…
Step- 2- Formulating Questions
• Formulate one or more questions
• Questions are specific and precise enough
• Check whether each question measures one thing at a time
• Avoid combined questions. E.g. how large an interval would you and your
husband prefer between two successive births?

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 Steps in designing a questionnaire……

Step -3- Sequencing of questions

• must be logical for respondents and allow as much as possible for a natural
discussions

• At the beginning of interview keep question concerning “back ground

variable” and sensitive question come at the end.

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Steps in designing a questionnaire…
Step -4- Formatting the questions

• when finalizing the questionnaire, be sure that:

• Each questionnaire has heading and space to insert the

number of data, and location of interview
• Lay out such that questionnaire belonging together
appear together

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Steps in designing a questionnaire….
Step-5- Translating

• The 1st translator and 2nd re-translator are not friendship

• The translation is done on three steps

• I.e. National (international) language=> Local language => Original

language
• E.g. English / Amharic → Sidama →English /Amharic

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Methods of Data Organization and
Presentation
• The data collected in a survey is called raw data.

• In most cases, useful information is not immediately evident from the

mass of unsorted data.

• Collected data need to be organized in such a way as to condense the

information they contain in a way that will show patterns of variation
clearly.
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 Frequency Distributions
• A frequency distribution lists data values (either individually or by
groups of intervals), along with their corresponding frequencies
(or counts).

• A table which involves a listing of all values of the studied variable

and how many times each value is observed.

• Tables make easier to see how the data are distributed

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 Definitions of terms;

• Array (ordered array) is a serial arrangement of numerical data in an ascending or descending

order.

• Lower class limit are the smallest numbers that can belong to the different classes.

• Upper class limits are the largest numbers that can belongs to the different classes.

• Class boundaries (true limits) are the numbers used to separate classes, but without the gaps
created by class limits.

• Class midpoints are the midpoints of the classes, each class midpoint can be found by adding the
lower class limit to the upper class limit and dividing the sum by 2.

• Class width is the difference between two consecutive lower class limits or two consecutive lower
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Constructing a frequency distribution
a) Qualitative variable/A categorical distribution : Count the
number of cases in each category.
- Example1: The ICU type of 25 patients entering intensive care
unit at a given hospital:
1. Medical
2. Surgical
3. Cardiac
4. Other
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 Frequency Relative Frequency
ICU Type (How often) (Proportionately often)

Medical 12 0.48
Surgical 6 0.24
Cardiac 5 0.20
Other 2 0.08

Total 25 1.00

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 Example 2:
A study was conducted to assess the
characteristics of a group of 234 smokers by
collecting data on gender and other variables.
Gender, 1 = male, 2 = female

Gender Frequency (n) Relative Frequency

Male 1 110 47.0%

Female 2 124 53.0%

Total 234 100%

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 Constructing a frequency distribution……
b) Quantitative continuous variable:

1. Decide on the number of classes you want.

• A guide on the determination of the number of classes (k) can be used the Sturge’s
Formula, given by:

• K = 1 + 3.322xlog (n), where n is the number of observations

• Note that the Sturges rule should not be regarded as final, but should be considered
as a guide only.

• The number of classes specified by the rule should be increased or decreased for
convenient or clear presentation.
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 Procedures for constructing a frequency distribution
2. Calculate class width
• Class width = (highest Value) - (lowest value)
Number of classes (k)
• Round this result to get a convenient number.(usually round up)

3. Starting point: begin by choosing a number for the lower limit of the first class. Choose either the

lowest data value or a convenient value that is a little smaller.

4. Using the lower limit of the first class and class width, proceed to list the other lower class limits.

(Add the class width to the starting point to get the second class limits, add the class width to the second

lower class limit to get the third, and so on.)

5. Go through the data set putting a tally in the appropriate class for each data value.

• should10/29/2020
be increased or decreased for convenient or clear presentation.
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 Example:
• Leisure time (hours) per week for 40 college students:

23 24 18 14 20 36 24 26 23 21 16 15 19 20 22 14 13 10 19 27 29 22
38 28 34 32 23 19 21 31 16 28 19 18 12 27 15 21 25 16

K = 1 + 3.22 (log40) = 6.32 ≈ 6

Maximum value = 38, Minimum value = 10

Width = (38-10)/6 = 4.66 ≈ 5

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 Time Relative Cumulative
(Hours) Frequency Frequency Relative
Frequency
10-14 5 0.125 0.125
15-19 11 0.275 0.400
20-24 12 0.300 0.700
25-29 7 0.175 0.875
30-34 3 0.075 0.950
35-39 2 0.050 1.00

Total 40 1.00
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• Cumulative frequencies: When frequencies of two or
more classes are added.

• Cumulative relative frequency: The percentage of the

total number of observations that have a value either in
that interval or below it.

• Mid-point: The value of the interval which lies midway

between the lower and the upper limits of a class.

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• True limits: Are those limits that make an interval of a
continuous variable continuous in both directions

• Used for smoothening of the class intervals

• Subtract 0.5 from the lower and add it to the upper limit

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 Time
(Hours) True limit Mid-point Frequency

10-14 9.5 – 14.5 12 5

15-19 14.5 – 19.5 17 11
20-24 19.5 – 24.5 22 12
25-29 24.5 – 29.5 27 7
30-34 29.5 – 34.5 32 3
35-39 34.5 - 39.5 37 2
Total 40

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 Grouped frequency distribution

• In connection with large sets of data, a good overall picture and sufficient
information can often be conveyed by grouping the data into a number of
class intervals.

• Consider the age of AASTU 2nd year students (total 600)

Age (years) Number of students
Under 18 150
18-21 300
22-25 100
25+ 50
Total 600
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 Grouped frequency…..
• Frequency distributions present data in a relatively compact form, gives a
good overall picture, and contain information that is adequate for many
purposes, but there are usually some things which can be determined only
from the original data.

• For instance, the above grouped frequency distribution cannot tell how many
of the students are 19 years old, or how many are over 28.

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 Grouped frequency…..
• Example: Construct a grouped frequency distribution of the following data on
the amount of time (in hours) that 80 college students devoted to leisure
activities during a typical school week:

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 Grouped frequency….
• Determine the number of classes K = 1 + 3.322 x log (80) = 7.32 ≈7 classes
• Maximum value = 38 and Minimum value = 10 = Range/width = 38 – 10 = 28
and
• W = 28/7 = 4
• Using width of 5, we can construct grouped frequency distribution for the
above data as:

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Grouped frequency……
Time spent Tally Frequency Cumulative
(hours) frequency
10-14 8 8
15-19 28 36
20-24 27 63
25-29 12 75
30-34 //// 4 79
35-39 / 1 80
Total 80

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 Statistical table
• An orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in rows and
columns

• Rows (stubs) are horizontal

• Columns (captions) are vertical

• Tables can be simple/one-way table, two way table or higher order

tables

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 Guidelines for constructing tables
• Keep them simple,

• Limit the number of variables to three or less,

• All tables should be self-explanatory,

• Include clear title telling what, when and where,

• Clearly label the rows and columns,

• State clearly the unit of measurement used,

• Explain codes and abbreviations in the foot-note,

• Show totals,

• If data is not original, indicate the source in foot-note.

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 B. Two-way table: This table shows two characteristics and is formed when either the caption or the stub is divided into two or more parts.

Table 2 Primary and secondary cases of syphilis morbidity by age and sex in 1989.

Age group (Years) Number of Cases Total

  Male Female  
9-14 40 190 230
15-19 1710 2668 4378
20-24 5120 5285 10405
30-34 5537 3111 8649
35-39 5004 1897 6901
40-44 2144 487 2631
744 1147 131 1278
Total 26006 18075 44081
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C. Higher Order Table: When it is desired to represent three or more characteristics in a single table.

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Diagrammatic Representation of Data

• Appropriately drawn graph allows readers to obtain rapidly an overall

grasp of the data presented.

• The relationship between numbers of various magnitudes can usually

be seen more quickly and easily from a graph than from a table

• It consists in presenting statistical material in geometric figures,

pictures, maps and lines or curves.

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Importance of Diagrammatic Representation
1. They have greater attraction than mere figures. They give delight to
the eye and add a spark of interest.
2. They help in deriving the required information in less time and
without any mental strain.
3. They facilitate comparison.
4. They may reveal unsuspected patterns in a complex set of data and
may suggest directions in which changes are occurring. This warns
us to take immediate action.
5. They have greater memorizing value than mere figures.

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Limitations of Diagrammatic Representation
1. The technique of diagrammatic representation is made use only for
purposes of comparison.
2. It is not to be used when comparison is either not possible or is not
necessary.
3. Diagrammatic representation is not an alternative to tabulation.
4. It only strengthens the textual exposition of a subject, and cannot
serve as a complete substitute for statistical data.
5. It can give only an approximate idea and as such where greater
accuracy is needed diagrams will not be suitable.
6. They fail to bring to light small differences

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General rules that are commonly accepted about construction of graphs.
1. Every graph should be self-explanatory and as simple as possible.
2. Titles are usually placed below the graph and it should again question what ?
Where? When? How classified?
3. Legends or keys should be used to differentiate variables if more than one is
shown.
4. The axes label should be placed to read from the left side and from the
bottom.
5. The units in to which the scale is divided should be clearly indicated.
6. The numerical scale representing frequency must start at zero or a break in
the line should be shown.

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 Specific types of graphs include:
• Bar graph
Nominal, ordinal
• Pie chart and discrete data

• Histogram
• Box plot
• Scatter plot Continuous
data
• Line graph
• Others

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1. Bar charts (or graphs)

• Categories are listed on the horizontal axis (X-axis)

• Frequencies or relative frequencies are represented on the Y-axis

(ordinate)

• The height of each bar is proportional to the frequency or relative

frequency of observations in that category

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 Bar chart for the type of ICU for 25 patients

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 Method of constructing bar chart
• All the bars must have equal width

• The bars are not joined together

• The different bars should be separated by equal distances

• All the bars should rest on the same line called the base

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 Example: Construct a bar chart for the following data.

Distribution of patients in hospital by source of referral

Source of referral No. of patients Relative freq.
Other hospital 97 5.1
General practitioner 769 40.3
Out-patient department 623 32.7
Casualty 256 13.4
Other 161 8.5
Total 1 906 100.0

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 Distribution of patients in hopital X by source of referal, 1999
769
800

700 623
N o . o f p a t ie n t s

600

500
400

300 256

200 161
97
100
0
Other GP OPD Casualty Other
hospital
Source of re fe ral

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 2. Sub-divided bar chart

• If there are different quantities forming the sub-divisions of the totals,

simple bars may be sub-divided in the ratio of the various sub-divisions to
exhibit the relationship of the parts to the whole.

• The order in which the components are shown in a “bar” is followed in all
bars used in the diagram.

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 Example: Plasmodium species distribution for
confirmed malaria cases, Zeway, 2003

100 Mixed
P. vivax
80 P. falciparum
P e rc e n t

60

40

20

0
August October December
2003

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 3. Multiple bar graph

• Bar charts can be used to represent the relationships among

more than two variables.

• The following figure shows the relationship between children’s

reports of breathlessness and cigarette smoking by themselves
and their parents.

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 Prevalence of self reported breathlessness among school
childeren, 1998
B re a t h le s s n e s s , p e r c e n t

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Neither One Both
Parents smooking

Child never smoked smoked occassionaly child smoked one/week or more

We can see from the graph quickly that the prevalence of the
symptoms increases both with the child’s smoking and with that
of their parents.
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 There’s no reason why the bar chart can’t be
plotted horizontally instead of vertically.
CHA
Type of source

HC

Reading

Training female
male

Campaign

Anti FGMC

CAT

0 10 20 30 40 50
Percent

Figure 1. Source of information on the complications of FGM and participation in RH

programs, Jijiga, 2004*. * FGMC = female genital mutilation committee; CAT= community
action team; HC = health centre; CHA= community health agent
 4. Pie chart
• Shows the relative frequency for each category by dividing a circle
into sectors, the angles of which are proportional to the relative
frequency.

• Use percentage distributions

• Used for a single categorical variable

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 Steps to construct a pie-chart
• Construct a frequency table

• Change the frequency into percentage (P)

• Change the percentages into degrees, where: degree =

Percentage X 360o

• Draw a circle and divide it accordingly

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 Example: Distribution of deaths for females, in England and
Wales, 1989.

Cause of death No. of deaths

Circulatory system (C) 100 000
Neoplasmas (cancer) (N) 70 000
Respiratory system (R) 30 000
Injury and Poisoning (I) 6 000
Digestive system (D) 10 000
Others 20 000
Total 236 000

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 Distribution fo cause of death for females, in England and Wales, 1989

Others
8%
Digestive System
4%
Injury and Poisoning
3%

Circulatory system
Respiratory system
42%
13%

Neoplasmas
30%

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 5. Stem and Leaf Plot
• A quick way to organize data to give visual impression similar to a
histogram while retaining much more detail on the data.

• Draw a vertical line and place the first digits of each value called the
“stem” on the left side of the line.

• The numbers on the right side of the vertical line present the second digit
of each observation; they are the “leaves”.

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 Example

• 43, 28, 34, 61, 77, 82, 22, 47, 49, 51, 29, 36, 66, 72, 41

2 2 8 9
3 4 6
4 1 3 7 9
5 1
6 1 6
7 2 7
8 2

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 6. Histogram

• Histograms are frequency distributions with continuous class intervals that

have been turned into graphs.

• To construct a histogram, we draw the interval boundaries on a horizontal

line and the frequencies on a vertical line.

• Non-overlapping intervals that cover all of the data values must be used.

• Bars are then drawn over the intervals in such a way that the areas of the
bars are all proportional in the same way to their interval frequencies.

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 Example: Distribution of the age of women at the time of marriage

Age group 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49

No. of women 11 36 28 13 7 3 2
Age of women at the time of marriage

40

35
N o o f w o m en

30

25

20

15

10

0
14.5-19.5 19.5-24.5 24.5-29.5 29.5-34.5 34.5-39.5 39.5-44.5 44.5-49.5
Age group
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 Histogram for the ages of 2087 mothers with <5 children, Adami Tulu,
2003
700

600

500

400

300

200

100 Std. Dev = 6.13

Mean = 27.6

0 N = 2087.00
15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0

N1AGEMOTH

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 7. Frequency polygon

• A frequency distribution can be portrayed graphically in yet another way by

means of a frequency polygon.

• To draw a frequency polygon we connect the mid-point of the tops of the

cells of the histogram by a straight line.

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 Frequency polygon for the ages of 2087 mothers with <5
children, Adami Tulu, 2003
700

600

500

400

300

200

100 Std. Dev = 6.13

Mean = 27.6

0 N = 2087.00
15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0 55.0

N1AGEMOTH

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It can be also drawn without erecting rectangles by joining the top midpoints
of the intervals representing the frequency of the classes as follows:
Age of women at the time of marriage

40

35

30
N o o f w o m en

25

20

15

10

0
12 17 22 27 32 37 42 47
Age

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 8. Ogive Curve
• Some times it may be necessary to know the number of items whose values are more
or less than a certain amount.

• We may, for example, be interested to know the no. of patients whose weight is <50
Kg or >60 Kg.

• To get this information it is necessary to change the form of the frequency distribution
from a ‘simple’ to a ‘cumulative’ distribution.

• Ogive curve turns a cumulative frequency distribution in to graphs.

• Are much more common than frequency polygons

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 Cumulative Frequency and Cum. Rel. Freq. of Age
of 25 ICU Patients

Relative Frequency Cumulative Cumulative Rel.

Age Interval Frequency (%) frequency Freq.
(%)

10-19 3 12 3 12
20-29 1 4 4 16
30-39 3 12 7 28
40-49 0 0 7 28
50-59 6 24 13 52
60-69 1 4 14 56
70-79 9 36 23 92
80-89 2 8 25 100

Total 25 100
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Cumulative frequency of 25 ICU patients

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 Heart rate of patients admited in hospital Y, 1998

60

50
C u m . freq en cy

40

30

20

10

104.5
54.5

69.5

94.5
59.5

64.5

74.5

79.5

84.5

89.5

99.5
Heart rate

LM MM

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 9. Line graph
• Useful for assessing the trend of particular situation overtime.

• Helps for monitoring the trend of epidemics.

• The time, in weeks, months or years, is marked along the horizontal axis, and

• Values of the quantity being studied is marked on the vertical axis.

• Values for each category are connected by continuous line.

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N o . o f c o n f ir m e d m a la r ia c a s e s
No. of microscopically confirmed malaria cases by species and month at Zeway
malaria control unit, 2003

2100

1800 Positive
1500 P. falciparum
P. vivax
1200

900

600

300

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

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 Exercise
Data were recorded on the age in years and height in cm of 20 high school students in a classroom.
Females Males
Age Height Age Height
_______________________________________________________________
• 15 170 15 185
• 15 154 16 183
• 16 160 16 174
• 15 159 15 183
• 15 156 15 173
• 15 153 15 173
• 16 166 15 178
• 16 163 14 167
• 15 167 15 177
• 15 151
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