Chapter 4

 Process in Conducting Research

 The Research Process
 There are a number of stages in the research
process, although their number and description
tends to vary between authors.
 Basically there are five stages in research
process. They are:
 Conceptualization
 Contextualization
 Data Collection/Generation
 Data Analysis
 Reporting Conclusions
2
The Research Process Cont..
Conceptualization
 Defining the 'problem

 Establishing the research questions

 Identifying the aims

 Specifying the testable hypotheses

 Deciding on the research approach

 Identifying the most appropriate way of

undertaking the data collection and/or generation

3
Contextualization
 Putting the research in the context of similar

research that has been done in the past. If there

is similar research was done elsewhere, looking
carefully the methodology used and the way data
collected and the limitation of the work may
help.

Data Collection and /or generation

 Applying the chosen method(s).

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Data Analysis
 Method to collect data and the following data

analysis technique should match; occasionally

problem may emerge as one start to do data
analysis.

Reporting Conclusions
 Writing up and / or further dissemination.

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 The Research Processes Described
 1. Observation studies
 2. Questionnaires'
 3. Interviews
 4. Focus Groups
 5. Document Analysis
 6. Mathematical Modeling
 7. Experimental Methods

6
 1. Observation studies
 Observation refers to the process of observing and recording

events or situations.
 The technique is particularly useful for discovering how

individuals or groups of people or animals behave, act or react.

 There are two main types of observation: participant and

nonparticipant:
 Participant Observation is usually limited to studies of

human subjects.
 The researcher becomes part of the group studied and

participates in their daily life and activities:

 Observing their everyday situations and their behavior in
the situations
 Conversation is used in order to discover the subjects' own

interpretations of events.
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  In non-participant observation; the
researchers simply observe the activities
without taking part themselves.
 No, influencing or becoming involved in

activities they may not wish to take part in

(For example dangerous or criminal actions),
they are less likely to understand fully the
meanings behind behavior in the group studied.
 In human observation studies, the observer can
remain covert, hiding their true identity as a
researcher, or overt, where their identity is
revealed to those studied.
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 Advantages and disadvantages of observation studies
Advantages Disadvantages
Requires little training or Time consuming.
familiarization.
Can understand meanings behind Problems with recording data.
actions.
Behavior can be observed in its Can only study a small group.
natural environment, the subject is
undisturbed.
Can study deviant groups. Cannot make generalizations – no
way of judging whether the group is
typical.
Flexibility - researcher may come If covert is it ethical?
across conditions and events
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Data collection
 It is impossible to keep a record of everything

and you must decide at the outset where your

interests lie.
 You may decide to film or tape record events,.

 Data is often recorded through writing up notes

in private after the event or you could set up
your own complex system with specific
categories of behavior for post-observation
recordings using graphs, charts and plans.
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 General ideas for carrying out observation are
that it is not an easy option for a research
project but a method that takes meticulous
planning.
 One should enter the field with a clear idea of

exactly what it is one wishes to discover or vast

amounts of time and effort can be wasted.

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2. Questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a type of survey where respondents

write answers to questions posed by the researcher on

a question form.
 A number of respondents are asked identical
questions, in order to gain information that can be
analyzed, patterns found and comparisons made.
 “Asking the correct (in time, structure) question is half

of the answer”.

 Questionnaires are extremely flexible and can be used

to gather information on almost any topic involving
large or small numbers of people.
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 There are closed ended or fixed questions and the open ended
questionnaire.
 Closed ended or fixed questions are where the respondent is
required to answer by choosing an option from a number of given
answers.
 Open-ended questionnaire differs in that it allows the respondent
to formulate and record their answers in their own words.

Example , Closed choice questions

People go to a bar for different reasons; for which of the following
four reasons do you most go?
to meet friends
to eat and drink
to watch sport
to play pool or darts
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 Open ended questions
People go to the bar for different reasons; for what
reason do you most go?
---------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
List the top five reasons why you applied to the
ASTU graduate program?
-------------------------------------------
-----------------
 “When I ask you ‘what is life?” Not expect a ‘yes’ or

‘no’; answer! And should I ask how old you are

there is no need for you to give me your memoirs!”
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 ◦ General tips for constructing questionnaires:
 Get the beginning right (encourage respondent)
 Make the questionnaires right (avoid cramped
appearance)
 Use a large enough type size
 Keep sentence short and sentence construction
simple (Avoid leading the respondent in particular way)
 Avoid jargon and technical terms (not ambiguous)
 Watch out for double questions (asking two questions
at once)

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 Exercise
 The census is a form of research that uses a
questionnaire that all citizens are expected to
provide information for. Does the census
 conducted in Ethiopia have open- or closed-

ended questions?

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 Advantage and disadvantages of
questioners
Advantages Disadvantages
Quick Limited answers only can be given.
Cheap Lack of qualitative depth results in
superficiality.
Efficient No way of probing for more
information in superficial
responses.
Can reach a large number of people Not always accurate - not possible
to verify what appears to be an
inaccurate answer and little check
on honesty of responses. Questions
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may mean different things to
Data collection
 The information required will be recorded on

the form itself by the respondent.

 Questionnaires can be given to the respondent

personally and completed on the spot.

 We based questionnaires are often seen as

easily to respond by survey participants.

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3. Interviews
 Interviews are limited to cases where the subjects of study

are humans.
 Interviews are a type of survey where questions are
delivered in a face-to-face encounter by an interviewer.
 The interview is like a conversation and has the purpose of

obtaining information relevant to a particular research

topic.
 Purely quantitative interviews are rather like a closed ended

questionnaire that the interviewer fills in for the

respondent.
 These are highly structured, formal interviews.
 At the other end of the scale, the unstructured, purely

qualitative interview is rather like an informal conversation.

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General tips for carrying out interviews:
 Begin with an explanation of who you are and what
the survey is about and ensure confidentiality.

 Try to achieve rapport with the respondent.

 Be friendly and look as if you are enjoying the

interview and are interested in what they have to say.


 Be aware of the importance of body language in face-

to-face interviews.
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 Advantage and disadvantage of interview

Advantages Disadvantages

High response rate. Limited sample only.

Can collect complex information. Can be difficult to analyze
(especially in-depth interviews).
High degree of researcher control May be a hostile reaction.
achieved.
Can be made more responsive to Whole process is time consuming.
early results.
Relaxed environment. Recording techniques may cause
problems.
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Data collection
 A structured format can leave the interviewer

with the job of simply ticking a number of

boxes on a form, however a less structured
format necessitates a different technique for
recording data.

 A tape recorder is often used to collect

information in an unstructured interview. (it has
advantage over note taking)

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4. Focus Groups
 The focus group is a type of interview that involves carefully

selected individuals who usually do not know each other.

 They generally consist of 7-10 members alongside the researcher.

 A group discussion is held in a permissive environment in order to

extract opinions and share ideas and perceptions through group

interaction.
 It is not necessary to reach a consensus.

 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing qualitative data

which gives an insight into attitudes and perceptions difficult to

obtain using other procedures.

 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing

predetermined open ended questions which the respondents
answer in any way they choose.

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 5. Document Analysis
 This refers to the process of using any kind of document, films,

television programs and photographs as well as written sources,

such as books, papers and letters, for analysis in relation to a
particular research question.

 It can be used as the singular method of research or as a

supplementary form of inquiry.
 Document analysis, also referred to as content analysis, differs
from the majority of research methods in two major ways.
 It is an indirect form of research; it is something that has been

produced, so the investigator is not generating original data.

 It is an 'unobtrusive', or 'non-reactive' method.

 This refers to the fact that the document will not be affected in

any way by your research; it cannot react as a human can.

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 In general, documents have been written
from the perspective of those from official
sources but a different perspective can be
gained from using personal accounts and oral
testaments such as letters, diaries, and
autobiographies.

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 Advantaged and disadvantages of document analysis

Advantages Disadvantages
The data never alters and Subject to bias and subjectivity - impossible to allow
can be subject to reanalysis. for biases introduced by the fact that the document
studied has been written for a particular purpose
Unobtrusive Evidence may be out of date.
Events can be compared May not be accurately recorded.
over time and cultures.
Gives an expert Documents available may be limited
understanding.
Cheap Can be laborious and time consuming.
Computers can aid analysis
and lead to complete
reliability in applying the ASTU, Chemical Engineering 10/26/2020 26
Department
Data collection
 A recording unit must be defined.
 For example, a study of newspaper content may
concentrate on the number of stories on a particular topic
or the column inches devoted to a particular subject.

 General guidelines for carrying out document analysis:

 • Decide initially on categories for research,
 • Keep focused; do not let your research become
too wide.

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6. Mathematical Modeling
 Mathematical modeling can be used to analyze
relationships between different variables and to predict
possible outcomes, or causal effects.

 Experiments can be designed from models of systems,

which aim to define links between variables and
outcomes.
 A mathematical model is an abstract model that uses
mathematical language to describe the behaviour of a
system.

 Mathematics can be used to "model", or represent, how

the real world works. 28
 Example: Food complex company uses 200x300x400 mm size
boxes, and the cardboard is 5mm thick. Someone suggests using
4mm cardboard ... how much better is that?
 Normal volume is 200x300x400= 24,000,000 mm3

 Let us compare the two volumes:

 Current Volume = (200-2×5) × (300-2×5) × (400-2×5) =
21,489,000 mm3

 New Volume = (200-2×4) × (300-2×4) × (400-2×4) = 21,977,088

mm3

 That is a change of:

 (21,977,088-21,489,000)/21,489,000 ≈ 2% more volume
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 Advantaged and disadvantages of Mathematical Modeling

Advantages Disadvantages

Can extend powers of Does not explain why variables are linked to
deductive reasoning. particular outcomes - can not explain why
particular variables are important.
Attempts to be objective Model produced is limited to one situation and
maths is 'neutral'. therefore may not apply to others.
Is an aid to causal Inability to distinguish causal from accidental
explanation and can relations.
therefore help calculate
the effects of actions.
.
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 Examples of use:
 To consider why there is gender difference in the intake of students
in science and technology fields at ASTU.
 Using mathematical modeling it is possible to isolate variables that
may have an effect on the choices that men and women make.

 Exercise: A dietician would like to construct a mathematical model

that describes physical features to body weight. What variables do
 you think would be relevant to consider?

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7. The Experimental Method
 This method involves setting up an experiment

in order to test a particular theory or hypothesis.

 In its simplest terms experimentation is
concerned with seeing what changes occur if
something new is tried out and with the effects
of these changes on something else.
 It is a method particularly associated with the

physical and life sciences.

 Some scientific findings, even though widely

accepted, cannot be experimental proven.

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 To take place the experiment, using the most basic research
strategy, the researcher should alter at least one particular
element or factor of the study, known as variables, in order
to assess the effects of this change on behavior.

 The effect of this alteration is assessed.

 Measurement is required before, during and after the
experiment.

 The experiment has to be replicable and produce more or

less the same results if it is to have any significance.

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 There are two different types of experiment, the
laboratory experiment and the field experiment.
1. In laboratory experiments the researcher will
conduct a small-scale study where subjects
can be manipulated, observed and tested in a
highly controlled environment.
2. A field experiment is an experiment that takes
place outside the laboratory.
 An experiment is often conducted because the

scientist wants to know if the independent

variable is having any effect upon the
dependent variable. (y=2x+c)
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 Experimental Research is often used where:
 • There is time priority in a causal

relationship (cause precedes effect),

 • There is consistency in a causal

relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect)

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General tips for carrying out experiments:
 Careful preparation is essential and experienced
researchers should be consulted before
experimentation begins.

 Project design, sample selection and

measurement of dependent variables are crucial
to the success of the research.

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 Advantaged and disadvantages of experimental method
Advantages Disadvantages
Ideas can be tested in a Where human subjects are involved it is generally
controlled way. viewed as unethical.
Ideal for investigating causal Results may be different in the real world to those
relationships. discovered in a controlled environment.
Can generalize effects. The influence of all variables can never be eliminated;
many different circumstances potentially function as
variables that can affect the outcome.
Scientifically validated Restricted range.
findings give greater value
to research.
Large amount of preparation is required.

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 Exercise
 A trial is conducted to study the effect of an environmental
pollutant (lead in paint) on the occurrence of pancreatic
cancer in mice.
 What is the cause and effect that the researcher is trying to
establish?
 If the outcome of this study shows that there is no causal
relationship, does this imply that the experiment was a
failure?

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