Forging and Extrusion

M JAMIL MS/IE

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 Forging
• Forging is the working of metal into a useful
shape by hammering or pressing.
• Most forging operations are carried out hot,
although certain metals may be cold-forged.

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 Forging Operations
Edging is used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather
metal. The metal flow is confined in the horizontal direction
but it is free to flow laterally to fill the die.

Drawing is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of

the work piece with concurrent increase in length.

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 Piercing and punching are used to produce holes in metals.

Fullering is used to reduce the cross-sectional area of a portion

of the stock. The metal flow is outward and away from the centre
of the fuller. i.e., forging of connecting rod for an internal
combustion engine

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Swaging is used to produce a bar with a smaller diameter (using
concave dies).
•Swaging is a special type of forging in which metal is formed
by a succession of rapid hammer blows
• Swaging provides a reduced round cross section suitable for
tapping, threading, upsetting or other subsequent forming and
machining operations.

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 Classifications of Forging Processes

• By equipment:
1) Forging hammer or drop hammer
2) Press forging
• By process:
1) Open - die forging
2) Closed - die forging
3) Impression- die forging

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By equipment

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By process
Open - die

Closed - die

Impression- die

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 1. Open-die forging
• Open-die forging is carried out between flat dies or
dies of very simple shape.
• The process is used for mostly large objects or when
the number of parts produced is small.
• Open-die forging is often used to preform the work
piece for closed-die forging.

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 2. Closed-die forging (or impression-die
forging)
• The workpiece is deformed between two die halves
which carry the impressions of the desired final
shape.
• The workpiece is deformed under high pressure in a
closed cavity.
• Normally used for smaller components
• The process provide precision forging with close
dimensional tolerance
• Closed dies are expensive
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Flash is the
excess metal,
which squirts
out of the
cavity as a
thick ribbon
of metal.

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 Functions of flash
The flash serves two purposes:
• Acts as a ‘safety value’ for excess metal.
• Builds up high pressure to ensure that the
metal fills all recesses of the die cavity.

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Process

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Typical curve of forging
load vs. stroke for
closed-die forging

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 Grain Growth Comparison

•The formation of a grain structure in forged parts is elongated in the

direction of the deformation.
•The metal flow during forging provides fibrous (tough)
microstructure (revealed by etching). This structure gives better
mechanical properties in the plane of maximum strain but (perhaps)
lower across the thickness
•The work piece often undergo re-crystallization therefore, provide
finer grains compared to the cast dendritic structure resulting in
improved mechanical properties.
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 Forming textures
Crystallographic orientation of the grains
Castings Forgings

Cast iron structure Fibre structure in forged steels

Mainly epitaxial, Redistribution of grains

dendritic or in the working
equiaxed grains directions
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 Calculation of forging loads
The total energy required for deformation process;

Utotal = Uideal + Ufriction + Uredundant

Note: redundant work = work that does not contribute to shape change of
the workpiece

Efficiency of a given deformation process η is

η = 0.3-0.6 for extrusion

= 0.75-0.95 for rolling
= 0.10-0.20 for closed die forging
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The calculation for forging load can be
divided into three cases according to
friction:

• In the absence of friction

• Low friction condition (lower bound
analysis or sliding condition)
• High friction condition (sticky friction
condition)
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 1) In the absence of friction
By assuming that there is no friction at die-workpiece
interface, the forging load is therefore the
compressive force (P) acting on a round metal bar.

Where
P is the compressive force
σo is the yield stress of the metal
A is the cross sectional area of the metal.

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And the compressive stress (p) produced by this
force P can be obtained from

Do2ho=D2h
from volume constant

h is the instantaneous height of the metal bar during forging

ho is the original height of the metal bar
Do is the original diameter of the metal bar.

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 Stress strain relationship

There are three types of static stresses to which

materials can be subjected:
• Tensile stress
• Compressive stress
• Shear stress
The stress–strain curve is the basic relationship
that describes the mechanical properties of
materials for all three types.

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 lfmnv

• In the test, a force is applied that pulls the material,

tending to elongate it and reduce its diameter.
Standards by ASTM (American Society for Testing
and Materials) specify the preparation of the test
specimen and the conduct of the test itself.
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 Engineering Stress–Strain

• The engineering stress and strain in a tensile test

are defined relative to the original area and length
of the test specimen
• These values are of interest in design because the
designer expects that the strains experienced by
any component of the product will not significantly
change its shape.
• Engineering stress at any point on the curve is
defined as the force divided by the original area:

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• The engineering strain at any point in the test is given
by;

• where e= engineering strain, mm/mm (in/in); L=length

at any point during the
elongation, mm (in); and Lo= original gage length, mm
(in).
• The relationship is defined by Hooke’s law:

• where E= modulus of elasticity, MPa (lb/in2), a

measure of the inherent stiffness of a material
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 True Stress–Strain
• The stress value obtained by dividing the
instantaneous value of area into the applied load is defined
as the true stress:

• where s= true stress, MPa (lb/in2); F= force, N (lb); and

A= actual (instantaneous) area
resisting the load, mm2 (in2).
• true strain provides a more realistic assessment of the
‘‘instantaneous’’ elongation per unit length of the material.

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• Thus, Hooke’s law can be used to relate true
stress to true strain:
• The difference between the true stress–strain
curve and its engineering counterpart occurs in
the plastic region. The stress values are higher in
the plastic region.
• True strain can be related to the corresponding
engineering strain

• True stress and engineering stress can be related

by the expression
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μ = frictional coefficient
τ = the shearing stress at the interface
p = the stress normal to the interface

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The average pressure formula can also be approximated as

2 r
pav  Y (1  )
3h
F  ( pav )(r 2 )

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 Residual stresses in forging
The residual stress produced in forgings as a results of
inhomogeneous deformation are generally small because the
deformation is normally carried out well into the hot-working
region.
• However, appreciable residual stresses and warping can occur on
the quenching of steel forgings in heat treatment.
• Large forgings are subjected to the formation of small cracks, or
flakes at the centre of the cross section. This is associated with the
high hydrogen content usually present in steel ingots of large size,
coupled with the presence of residual stresses.
• Finite element analysis is used to predict residual stresses in
forgings.
• Large forgings therefore have to be slowly cooled from the
working temperature. Examples: burying the forging in ashes for a
period of time or using a controlled cooling furnace.
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Typical forging defects

• Incomplete die filling.

• Die misalignment.
• Forging laps.
• Incomplete forging penetration- should
forge on the press.
• Micro-structural differences resulting in
pronounced property variation.
• Hot shortness, due to high Sulphur
concentration in steel and nickel.

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Extrusion (Metallic)

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 Extrusion
A compression forming process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to produce
a desired cross-sectional shape. The process can be
likened to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.
Pros:
– variety of sections, shapes possible (hot extrusion)
– grain structure and strength enhancement (cold)
– close tolerance (cold)
– no material wastage.
Cons
– Cross section remains uniform throughout length
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 Types of Extrusion

Direct Extrusion(forward extrusion)

The ram forces the work billet metal to move forward to pass
through the one or more die openings. A metal billet is loaded
into a container, and a ram compresses the material, forcing it
to flow through one or more openings in a die at
the opposite end of the container. As the ram approaches the
die, a small portion of the billet remains that cannot be forced
through the die opening. This extra portion, called
the butt, is separated from the product by cutting it just beyond
the exit of the die

Indirect(reverse) Extrusion
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of
the extruder container housing.
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Direct Extrusion

Friction increases
the extrusion
force.
Hollow section is
formed using a
mandrel.

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Indirect Extrusion

Metal is forced to flow

through the die in an
opposite direction to the
ram’s motion.

Lower extrusion force as

the work billet metal is
not moving relative to
the container wall.

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 Extrusion Processes
Hot extrusion
Keeping the processing temperature to above the re-
crystalline temperature. Reducing the ram force,
increasing the ram speed, and reduction of grain
flow characteristics. Controlling the cooling is a
problem. Glass may be used as a lubricant.
Cold extrusion
Often used to produce discrete parts. Increase
strength due to strain hardening, close tolerances,
improved surface finish, absence of oxide layer and
high production rates.

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 Hot extrusion
• Prior heating of the billet to a temperature above its
recrystallization temperature. This reduces
strength and increases ductility of the metal,
permitting more extreme size reductions and more
complex shapes to be achieved in the process.
• Additional advantages include reduction of ram
force, increased ram speed, and reduction of
grain flow characteristics in the final product
• Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant in hot
extrusion; in addition to reducing friction, it also
provides effective thermal insulation between the
billet and the extrusion container.
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 Material under hot and cold working
• Hot extrusion includes aluminum, copper,
magnesium, zinc, tin, and their alloys, Steel
alloys are usually extruded hot

• Cold extruded (e.g., low carbon steels

and stainless steel). Aluminum is probably the
most ideal metal for extrusion (hot and cold)

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 Extrusion Analysis
Ao
Extrusion ratio rx 
Af
Assuming all sections are
circular, ideal deformation, no
friction, no redundant work:

True strain   ln rx

Ram pressure p  Y f ln rx

Taking into account friction, p  Y f (a  b ln rx )

where a =0.8 and b =1.2 to 1.5.
Yf=Kεn/(1+n)
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 Extrusion Analysis
For direct extrusion, additional pressure, pf, required by the
extruder to overcome the wall friction is related as follows:
p f Do2
 pcDo L (1) [equilibrium equation]
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For the worst case that the friction shear stress at the wall
equals to the shear yield strength of the work metal:
pc  Ys  Y f (2)
2L
Subs. (2) into (1), the additional pressure: p f  Yf
Do
The total ram pressure:  2L 
p  Y f   x  
The power required:  Do 

P  Fv 42
 Ram Force

Variation of Ram Force with ram

stroke and die angle.

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 Extrusion Dies
For the case of non-circular extruded section, a shape factor
has to be introduced:
2.25
 Cx 
K x  0.98  0.02 
 Cc 
where Kx = shape factor
Cx = perimeter of the non-circular extruded section
Cc = perimeter of a circle that has the same cross-
sectional area as the extruded section.
For direct extrusion, the extrusion force
 2L 
p  K xY f   x  
 Do 
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 Impact Extrusion

Forward backward

combination

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 Impact Extrusion
• Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds
and shorter strokes than conventional
extrusion.
• It is for making discrete parts.
• For making thin wall-thickness items by
permitting large deformation at high speed.

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 Hydrostatic Extrusion

• Using hydrostatic system to reduce the friction and

lower the power requirements.
• Sealing is the major problem.
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 Example: Extrusion
• A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 40
mm in diameter is reduced by indirect
(backward) extrusion to a 15 mm diameter.
Die angle = 90°. If the Johnson equation has a
= 0.8 and b = 1.5, and the flow curve for the
work metal has K = 750 MPa and n = 0.15,
determine: (a) extrusion ratio, (b) true strain
(homogeneous deformation), (c) extrusion
strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram force.

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 Extrusion Defects

a) Centre-burst: internal crack due to excessive tensile stress at

the centre possibly because of high die angle, low extrusion
ratio.
b) Piping: sink hole at the end of billet under direct extrusion.
c) Surface cracking: High part temperature due to low extrusion
speed and high strain rates.

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 Summary
• Both are Bulk deformation processes
• Solve problem Sheet, contact TA/CR

• Write report on Forging and Extrusion defects

and suggest WAY to avoid it.

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