Applied electronics

EL-2112

Ass. Lec Temesgen Yisehak

Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 1

 Semiconductor diodes

Objectives of this chapter

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-

 To know what semiconductor diodes are

 To know the p-type and n-type semiconductor

 To understand the p-n junction diode concept

 To understand the semiconductor diode biasing

 To know types of diodes and their application

 To understand Transistor

 What is an Op-Amp
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 Introduction

Electrical material classified as

1.Insulater

2.Semiconducter

3.conducter

Conductor is a material, which allows the flow of charge when a voltage source of

limited magnitude is applied across its terminals. Example: metals

Insulator is a material that has a very low level of conductivity under pressure from an

applied voltage source or Insulators block electric current from flowing.

Examples: plastic, glass and wood.

A semiconductor is a material that has a conductivity level between the extremes of an

insulator and a conductor. PreE.g. germanium

By Temesgen Yisehak Ge, silicon Si 3
 Con’t

fig- Energy level

• Valence Band – is the highest range of electron energies in which electrons are
normally present.
• Conduction band-is the range of electron energies enough to free an electron
from necessary with its atom to move freely.
• Forbidden Band – is an energy range in a solid where no electron situation can
exist.
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 semiconductor diodes

 semiconductor diodes are solid-state device that conduct electrons

in a single direction and use a joint of positive (p) type and negative
(N) type sc.

 A semiconductor with out impurity known as Intrinsic or pure

semiconductor.

 After addition of impurity the semiconductor is known as extrinsic

semiconductor.

 The process of adding impurity to semiconductor is known as doping.

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 N-type and P-type s.c

• N-type s.c :- The addition of pentavalent

impurities (group v elements) such as
antimony, arsenic or phosphorous to group
IV elements such as silicon, germanium etc
creates what is known as an N-type
semiconductor.

• The new antimony energy levels just below

the conduction band are called donor levels
because an electron there is easily donated to
the conduction band.

• In this case elections are majority carrier

Fig n-type semiconductor
and hole is minority carrier. Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 6
 Con’t

• P-type s.c :- The addition of group III

elements(trivalent impurities)such as
boron, aluminum or gallium to an
intrinsic (group IV) elements creates what
is known as an P-type semiconductor.

• Those new Boron levels are called

acceptor levels because they can easily
accept an electron from the valence band.

• In this case Holes are majority carriers

and Electron is minority carrier. Fig P-type semiconductor

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 PN type semiconductor

• A section of p-type material and a section of n-type material are brought in

contact to form a pn junction.
• In the neighborhood of the junction, in a small section called the depletion
region, the mobile charge carriers (holes and free electrons) come into
contact with each other and recombine results form depletion region.
junction

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Fig PN-junction
 Con’t

Semiconductor diode biasing

1. Forward basing

2. Reverse basing

1.Forward basing

• If a positive voltage is applied to the

p-type side and a negative voltage to

Fig .Forward basing
the n-type side, current can flow

(depending upon the magnitude of the

applied voltage). This configuration is

called "Forward Biased“

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• Forward biasing operation

• When we apply an external voltage more than the barrier potential, the
negative terminal of battery pushes the electrons against barrier from N to P
region. Similarly positive terminal pushes the holes from P to N region.
• Thus holes get repelled by positive terminal and cross the junction against
barrier potential. This reduces the width of depletion region.
• In this way the flow of charge increases through the diode by increasing the
applied voltage.

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 Con’t

2.Reverse biased diode

 If a negative voltage is applied to the
p-type side and a positive voltage to
the n-type side, no (or exceptionally
small) current flows. This
configuration is called "Reverse
Biased" .
Fig .Reverse biased diode

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• Reverse biased Operation
• In reverse bias, the negative terminal attracts the holes in the P region
away from the junction. The positive terminal attracts the free
electrons in the N region and no charge carrier is able to cross the
junction.
• In this way the depletion width increases highly and acts as a resistor

• In this way there is a reverse current flow due to minority charge

carriers which are small in number.

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I-V characteristic curve

The experimental I-V characteristic of a diode

k – Boltzmann constant=1
T – junction temperature (K)
q-constant=11600
Is- reverse saturated current
Pre By Temesgen YisehakV- supplied voltage 13
 Types of diodes and there application

1. P-N Junction Diodes:-used to allow

current to flow in one direction while
blocking current flow in opposite
direction
 This diodes are applicable in

rectification
 clipping circuits –select part of a signal
that lies above or below a reference level.
 clamping circuits-clamp a signal from
different DC level
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 Cont…
2.Zener Diodes:-This allows the
diode to be operated in the
reverse biased region of the
characteristic curve without
damaging the P junction.
 Use mainly in voltage regulators

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 Cont…
3. Light Emitting Diode: LED
are semiconductor diodes which
emit light when current passes
through them.
 It contains a P-n junction that
emits light when passing
forward current.

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 Cont…
4.Photodiodes:- Photodiodes are sensitive
to received light. They are constructed
so their P-N junction can be exposed to
the outside through a clear window or
lens .
• This device is designed for operation in
the reverse bias direction. An external
voltage source is required to reverse
bias the device.
• This type of diode is used in CD players
and in the production of solar power.
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 Transistor

The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device

consisting of either two n- and one p-type layers of
material or two p- and one n-type layers of material.
Two Basic Types
1.Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
2.Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

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 Con’t
1. Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
BJT is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions
separated by two pn junction.
3 layer semiconductor device classified as:-
• 2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material  npn transistor
• 2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material  pnp transistor
The term bipolar reflects the fact that holes and
electrons participate in the injection process into the
oppositely polarized material.

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 Position of the terminals and symbol of BJT.

• Base is located at the

middle and more thin
from the level of
collector and emitter
• The emitter and
collector terminals are
made up of the same
type of semiconductor
material, while the base
of the other type of
material.

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 Con’t
The base-emitter junction forward biased,
• Operation of NPN type while the collector-base junction will be
reversed biased.
transistor The emitter region of an npn transistor is
heavily doped (n++), so that the diffusion
current primarily consists of free electrons
Direction of current moving from the emitter into the base.
direction of hole Normally, these free electrons would move
direction of electron to the base electrode, and some still do. But
most get swept across the collector base
junction by the electric field in the
depletion region.
In other words, the large number free
electrons in the emitter diffuse across the
base-emitter junction into the base, then
IE
drift across the collector-base junction into
the collector.
We say that emitter emits free electrons, and
the collector collects them. If the base is
thin, then for every free electron that
diffuses across the base-emitter junction.
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 Con’t

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 Con’t
Configuration of transistor

Biasing the transistor refers to applying voltages to the

transistor to achieve certain operating conditions.
Transistor configuration classified in to three:-
1. Common-Base Configuration (CB) : input =VEB & IE
output = VCB & IC

2. Common-Emitter Configuration (CE): input = VBE & IB

output= VCE & IC

3. Common-Collector Configuration (CC) :input = VBC & IB

(Also known as Emitter follower) output = VEC & IE
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1. Common-Base Configuration (CB)

- base is common to both input

and output of the
configuration.
- base is usually the terminal
closest to or at ground
potential. Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 24
 Con’t

• The output characteristics

has 3 basic regions:
Active region –defined by the
biasing arrangements.
• EB is FW & CB is RW.
• Ic = IE
• Transistor work as amplifier.
Cutoff region – region where
the collector current is 0A
Saturation region- region of
the characteristics to the left
of VCB = 0V Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 25
 Con’t
• Common collector
Common Emitter
configuration
configuration

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 4.2 . Field effect transistor
• field effect transistor:- is a three-terminal unipolar
solid-state device in which current is controlled by
an electric field.
• FETs are voltage controlled devices .
• FET is unipolar because it operate only the
majority-carrier(one-polarity) charge flow hole or
electrons.

There are two types

– JFET: Junction FET
– MOSFET: metal-oxide-semiconductor FET
Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 27
 Con’t

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 JFET CONSTRUCTION AND SYMBOLS

The transistor can be an n-channel device (conduction by electrons) or a

p-channel device (conduction by holes)
If the bar is N-type is called N-channel JFET.
If the bar is P-type is called P-channel JFET.

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 CON’T
Source. It is the terminal through which
majority carriers enter the bar. Since
carriers come from it, it is called the
source.
Drain. It is the terminal through which
majority carriers leave the bar i.e. they
are drained out from this terminal. The
drain-to source voltage V DS drives the
drain current ID.
3. Gate. These are two internally-
connected heavily-doped impurity
regions which form two P-N junctions.
The gate-source voltage VGS reverse
biases the gates.
4. Channel. It is the space between two
Schematic symbol of JFET
gates through which majority carriers pass
from source-to-drain when VDS is applied.
Schematic symbols for N-channel and
P-channel
Pre By Temesgen Yisehak JFET. 30
 • When the Gate voltage ( VG = 0 ), and a small
Working principle of JFET voltage ( VDS ) applied between the Drain and the
Source, maximum saturation current ( I DSS ) will
flow through the channel from the Drain to the
Source restricted only by the small depletion
region around the junctions.
• When a small negative voltage ( -VGS ) is now
applied to the Gate the size of the depletion region
begins to increase reducing the area of the channel
and thus reducing the current flowing through it.
• As the Gate voltage ( -VGS ) is made more negative,
the width of the channel decreases until no more
current flows between the Drain and the Source
and the FET is said to be "pinched-off" (similar to
the cut-off region for a BJT). The voltage at which
the channel closes is called the "pinch-off voltage",
( VP ).
• In this pinch-off region the Gate voltage, V GS
controls the channel current and VDS has little or
no effect. JFET Model
• The result is that the FET acts more like a voltage
controlled resistor which has zero resistance when
VGS = 0 and maximum "ON" resistance ( RDS )
when the Gate voltage is very negative. Fig:-
. Fig:-Circuit of N-channel JFET Circuit
Pre By Temesgen Yisehak of N-channel JFET 31
Output characteristic V-I curves of a typical junction FET.

 Ohmic Region - When VGS = 0 the depletion

layer of the channel is very small and the
JFET acts like a voltage controlled resistor. 
Cut-off Region - This is also known as the
pinch-off region were the Gate voltage,
VGS is sufficient to cause the JFET to act as
an open circuit as the channel resistance
is at maximum.
 Saturation or Active Region - The JFET
becomes a good conductor and is
controlled by the Gate-Source voltage,
( VGS ) while the Drain-Source voltage,
( VDS ) has little or no effect.
 Breakdown Region - The voltage between
the Drain and the Source, ( VDS ) is high
enough to causes the JFET's resistive
channel to break down and pass
uncontrolled maximum current.
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 What is an Op-Amp?
• An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an integrated
circuit that uses external voltage to amplify the input
through a very high gain.
• We recognize an Op-Amp as a mass-produced
component found in countless electronics.

What an Op-Amp looks like What an Op-Amp looks like

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to a lay-person to an engineer
 What is an Op-Amp? – The Layout
• There are 8 pins in a common Op-Amp, like the
741 which is used in many instructional courses.

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What is an Op-Amp? – The Inside
• The actual count varies, but an Op-Amp
contains several Transistors, Resistors, and a
few Capacitors and Diodes.
• For simplicity, an Op-Amp is often depicted as
this:
Positive
Power Supply
Inverting
Input -
Output
Non-Inverting +
Input
Negative
Power Supply
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History of the Op-Amp – The Dawn
• Before the Op-Amp: Harold S. Black develops
the feedback amplifier for the Western Electric
Company (1920-1930)

Forward Gain
A
Input Output

Feedback
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History of the Op-Amp – The Shift
• The end of Vacuum Tubes was built up during the
1950’s-1960’s to the advent of solid-state
electronics

1. The Transistor
2. The Integrated Circuit
3. The Planar Process

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 Mathematics of the Op-Amp
• The gain of the Op-Amp itself is calculated as:
G = Vout/(V+ – V-)

• The maximum output is the power supply voltage

• When used in a circuit, the gain of the circuit (as opposed to

the op-amp component) is:
Av = Vout/Vin

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 Op-Amp Saturation
• As mentioned Vout
earlier, the Vs+
maximum output
value is the supply
voltage, positive and
negative.
• The gain (G) is the Vin
slope between
saturation points.
Vs-

Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 39

 741 Op-Amp Schematic
current mirror current mirror

voltage
level
shifter
output
stage

differential amplifier current mirror high-gain amplifier

Pre By Temesgen Yisehak 40

 Op-Amp Characteristics

• Open-loop gain G is typically over 9000

• But closed-loop gain is much smaller
• Rin is very large (MΩ or larger)
• Rout is small (75Ω or smaller)
• Effective output impedance in closed loop is very small

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Ideal Op-Amp Characteristics

• Open-loop gain G is infinite

• Rin is infinite
• Zero input current
• Rout is zero

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Ideal Op-Amp Analysis

To analyze an op-amp feedback circuit:

• Assume no current flows into either input terminal
• Assume no current flows out of the output terminal
• Constrain: V+ = V-

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Inverting Amplifier Analysis

virtual ground

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Non-Inverting Amplifier Analysis

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 Op-Amp Buffer

Vout = Vin
Isolates loading effects

A B

High output Low input

impedance impedance
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Op-Amp Differentiator

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Op-Amp Integrator

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Op-Amp Summing Amplifier

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Op-Amp Differential Amplifier

If R1 = R2 and Rf = Rg:
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 Applications of Op-Amps
Filters Low pass filter
Types:
•Low pass filter
•High pass filter C
•Band pass filter
•Cascading (2 or more filters connected
together) R2

+ Vcc
Low pass filter transfer -
R1
function +
- Vcc +
+
V0
-
Low pass filter Cutoff
frequency  __

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 Oscillator
• Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a
periodic waveform on its output without an external
signal source.
• It is used to convert dc to ac.
• These signals serve a variety of purposes;
Communications systems, digital systems (including
computers), and test equipment make use of oscillators
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 Introduction
• The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of the
output to maintain the oscillations.
• The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing circuit to
generate a non sinusoidal signal such as square wave

Sine wave

Square wave

Sawtooth wave

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Oscillators

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 Basic principles for oscillation
An oscillator is an amplifier with positive feedback.
Ve Vo
Vs A
+
Vf
Ve  Vs  V f (1) b
V f  βVo (2)
Vo  AV e  AVs  V f   AVs  βVo  (3)
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 Basic principles for oscillation
Vo  AV e
 AVs  V f   AVs  βVo 
Vo  AV s  AVo
 1  A Vo  AV s

• The closed loop gain is: Vo A

Af  
Vs  1  Aβ 
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 Basic principles for oscillation
• In general A and  are functions of frequency and
thus may be written as;

Vo A s 
Af  s   s 
Vs 1  A s  β  s 
A s βissknown as loop gain

by cap. Temesgen yisehak 57