COLLEGE OF EEstablished

N GI N EinERI
1998
N G ROO R KEE

Department of Electrical Engineering

Lecture: 11

 
 QUALITY

 
The quality depends on perception of a person in a given situation.
The situation can be user-oriented, cost-oriented or supplier-
oriented. Since, products are manufactured for the customer so
requirements of customer dictates quality of product.
Quality is to be planned, achieved, controlled and improved
continuously.

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 Quality Definition(s)
Some of the definitions of the term „Quality', provided by quality gurus are as
follows:
• Quality is fitness for use (JURAN)
• Quality is conformance to requirements (CROSBY)
• The efficient production of the quality that the market expects (DEMING)
• Quality is what the customer says, it is (FEIGENBAUM)
• Quality is the loss that a product costs to the society after being shipped to the
customer (TAGUCHI)

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 QUALITY CONTROL
Control can be defined as "a process by means of which we observe the actual
performance and compare it with some standard".
If there is a deviation between the observed performance and the standard
performance then it is necessary to take corrective action.
Total Quality control is "An effective system for integrating the quality development,
quality maintenance and quality improvement efforts of the various groups in an
organization, so as to enable production and services at the most economical levels
which allow full customer satisfaction.

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 STATISTICAL QUALITY CONTROL
Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is the term used to describe the set of statistical tools
used to analyze the quality problems and solve them.
Statistical quality control refers to the use of statistical methods in the monitoring and
maintaining of the quality of products and services.
Statistical Quality Control techniques can be broadly divided into two categories:
(i) Statistical Process Control (SPC) techniques: SPC techniques are widely used in
almost any manufacturing process and in non-manufacturing processes as well. It is useful
in solving real situation problems, achieving process stability and making continuous
improvements in product quality. The most important among these are control charts.

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(ii) Acceptance Sampling: Acceptance sampling techniques are useful in ensuring
that the components conform to specified quality levels.

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 CONTROL CHARTS
Control charts, also known as Shewhart charts or process-behaviour charts, in
statistical process control are tools used to determine whether a manufacturing or
business process is in a state of statistical control.
Statistical Quality Control was developed as a feedback system that aids in
preventing defects rather than allowing defects to occur. One element of a process
control system is control charts. Dr.Walter Shewhart defined the concept of
common and special cause variation during the 1920s at BellLaboratories. He
developed a tool that he called the control chart.

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A control chart consists of:

• Points representing a statistic (e.g., a mean, range, proportion) of measurements

of a quality characteristic in samples taken from the process at different times [the
data]
• The mean of this statistic using all the samples is calculated (e.g., the mean of the
means, mean of the ranges, mean of the proportions)
• A center line is drawn at the value of the mean of the statistic
• The standard error (e.g., standard deviation/sqrt(n) for the mean) of the statistic is
also calculated using all the samples
• Upper and lower control limits (sometimes called "natural process limits") that
indicate the threshold at which the process output is considered statistically 'unlikely'
are drawn typically at 3 standard errors from the center line

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The chart may have other optional features, including:
• Upper and lower warning limits, drawn as separate lines, typically two standard
errors above and below the center line
• Division into zones, with the addition of rules governing frequencies of
observations in each zone.
Control Chart

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 • Help you recognize and understand variability and how to control it. Control
charts serve to direct management attention toward special causes of variation in a
system when they appear.
• Identify “special causes” of variation and changes in performance
• Assist in the diagnosis of process problems
• Determine if process improvement effects are having the desired affects
• Limit lines drawn on the charts provide guides for evaluation of performance.
• These lines (called control lines) indicate the dispersion of data on a statistical
basis and indicate if an abnormal situation (e.g., the process is not in control) has
occurred.

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The main purpose of using a control chart is to monitor, control, and improve process
performance over time by studying variation and its source. There are several functions
of a control chart:

1. It centers attention on detecting and monitoring process variation over time.

2. It provides a tool for ongoing control of a process.
3. It differentiates special from common causes of variation in order to be a guide for
local or management action.
4. It helps improve a process to perform consistently and predictably to achieve higher
quality, lower cost, and higher effective capacity.
5. It serves as a common language for discussing process performance.

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 • Variables data are quantitative data that can be measured.

Examples : the diameter of a

bearing or the thickness of a newly minted coin. Variables data are usually
represented as X-bar and R-charts .

• Attributes data are qualitative data that can be counted. Examples : a count
of scratches per items. Attributes data are usually represented as
nonconforming units and are analyzed by using p, np, and c control charts.

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 VARIABLE CONTROL CHARTS
An X and R (range) chart is a pair of control charts used with
processes that have a subgroup size of two or more. The standard
chart for variables data, X and R charts help determine if a
process is stable and predictable. The X chart shows how the
mean or average changes over time and the R chart shows how the
range of the subgroups changes over time. It is also used to
monitor the effects of process improvement theories.
Steps in Constructing an X and R Chart
The steps in constructing an X and R chart are given below.

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1. Gather the data.
a) Select the subgroup size (n). Typical subgroup sizes are 4 to 5. The concept of
rational sub- grouping should be considered. The objective is to minimize the amount
of variation within a subgroup.
b) Select the frequency with which the data will be collected. Data should be collected
in the order in which it is generated (in most cases).
c) Select the number of subgroups (k) to be collected before control limits are
calculated.
d) Start with initial control limits after ten subgroups, but recalculate the limits each
time until you get to twenty subgroups.
e) For each subgroup, record the individual, independent sample results.
f) For each subgroup, calculate the subgroup average:

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 where : n is the subgroup size.
g) For each subgroup, calculate the subgroup range:
R = X max - X min
Where: X max = the maximum individual sample result in the subgroup
X min = the minimum individual sample result in the subgroup.
2. Plot the data.
a) Select the scales for the x and y axes for both the X and R charts.
b) Plot the subgroup ranges on the R chart and connect consecutive points with
a straight line.

c) Plot the subgroup averages on the X chart and connect consecutive points with a
straight line.

3. Calculate the overall process averages and control limits.

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 a) Calculate the average range (R):

where : k is the number of subgroups.

b) Plot R on the range chart as a solid line and label.
c) Calculate the overall process average (X):

d) Plot X on the X chart as a solid line and label.

e) Calculate the control limits for the R chart. The upper control limit is given
by UCLr. The lower control limit is given by LCLr.

where :D4, D3, are control chart constants that depend on subgroup size

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f) Plot the control limits on the R chart as dashed lines and label.
g) Calculate the control limits for the X chart. The upper control limit is given by
UCLx. The lower control limit is given by LCLx.

Where : A2 is a control chart constant that depends on subgroup size .

h) Plot the control limits on the X chart as dashed lines and label.

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