Carbs

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
• are a major source of energy in our
diet.
• are composed of the elements C, H
and O.
• have the general formula Cx(H2O)y,
where x and y are variable numbers.
• are also called saccharides, which
means “sugars.”
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
• are produced by photosynthesis in plants.
• such as glucose are synthesized in plants from
CO2, H2O, and energy from the sun.
• are oxidized in living cells to produce CO2,
H2O, and energy.
• are divided into four main classes:

• Monosaccharides,
• Disaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides.
MONOSACCHARIDES
• Monosaccharides are the single sugar units.
• Their general formula is (CH2O)n.
• They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms as trioses

(3C), tetroses (4C), pentoses (5C), hexoses (6C) and heptoses (7C).
• Of these pentoses and hexoses are most common.
• Monosaccharides act as intermediates in metabolism, and are also the

primary energy source of the body.
• Monosaccharides consist of 3-6 carbon atoms typically with a carbonyl
group (aldehyde or ketone) and several hydroxyl groups.
• 2 types of monosaccharide structures: Aldoses and ketoses
Aldoses
Aldoses are monosaccharides O
• with an aldehyde group ║
• with many hydroxyl (-OH) C─H aldose
groups. │
triose (3C atoms) H─ C─OH
tetrose (4C atoms) │
H─ C─OH
pentose (5 C atoms)
│
hexose (6 C atoms)
CH2OH
Erythose, an aldotetrose
Ketoses CH2OH
Ketoses are monosaccharides │
• with a ketone group C=O ketose
• with many hydroxyl (-OH) │
groups. H─ C─OH
│
H─ C─OH
│
H─C─OH
│
CH2OH
Fructose, a ketohexose
Stereoisomerism
• A carbon atom to which 4 different groups are attached is known as chiral-C atom.
• Stereoisomerism arise due to the reversal of orientation of molecules at chiral-C atom.
• The number of stereoisomers is 2n, where n is the number of asymmetric centers.

D and L Notations
In a Fischer projection, the −OH group on the
• chiral carbon farthest from the carbonyl group determines an
L or D isomer.
• left is assigned the letter L for the L-form.
• right is assigned the letter D for the D-form.
•D & L sugars are mirror images of one another: Enantiomers
•They have the same name, e.g., D-glucose & L-glucose.
O H O H
C C
H – C – OH HO – C – H
HO – C – H H – C – OH
H – C – OH HO – C – H
H – C – OH HO – C – H
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose L-glucose
Examples of D and L Isomers of
Monosaccharides
O
O
C H
C H O
HO H
H OH C H
H OH
HO H H OH
H OH
H OH H OH
H OH HO H
H OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH
CH2 OH
D-glucose D-ribose L-galactose
Cyclic Structures
Cyclic structures
• are the prevalent form of monosaccharides with 5 or 6 carbon
atoms.
O O
• form when the hydroxyl group on C-5 reacts with the aldehyde
group or ketone group.
• Most pentose and hexose sugars, , do not exist as linear, or open-
chain, structures in solution but form cyclic, or ring, structures.
1
CHO
H C OH
2
HO C H D-glucose
3
H C OH (linear form)
4
H C OH
5
CH2OH
6
6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH
5 O 5 O
H H H OH
H H
4 H 1 4 H 1
OH OH
OH OH OH H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
-D-glucose -D-glucose
The α and β form differ in orientation of -OH group at first C-atom

and are called as the anomers.
DISACCHARIDES
• Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides combine
by means of condensation.
• The bond formed between two monosaccharides as a result of
condensation is called a glycosidic bond.
• Common disaccharides are lactose, maltose and sucrose.
• Maltose occurs mainly as a breakdown product of starch,
lactose is found in milk and is known as milk sugar, and
sucrose is obtained from sugarcane and is the most abundant
disaccharide in nature.
Glycosidic Bonds
The anomeric hydroxyl and a hydroxyl of another sugar
can join together, splitting out water to form a glycosidic
bond:
R-OH + HO-R'  R-O-R' + H2O

Two monosaccharides are linked via a
glycosidic bond to form disaccharide
Examples
• Lactose is made up of glucose and galactose
• Maltose is made up of two units of glucose
• Sucrose is made up of glucose and fructose

Reducing and non-reducing sugars
• Reducing
• 1. Possess a free aldehyde(-CHO) or ketone (-C=0)
Group.
• 2. Can reduce the Cu2+ cupric ions (blue)in Fehling’s
or Benedict’s Solution to Cu+ cuprous ions (reddish)
that precipitate out as Cu2O(cuprous oxide).
• 3. Maltose. lactose, cellobiose,
• Non-reducing
• 1. A free aldehyde or ketonic group is lacking.
• 2. No such reaction.
• 3. Sucrose, trehalose ,raffinose,
POLYSACCHARIDES
• Polysaccharides are the macromolecules formed by joining of
many molecules of monosaccharides.
• These are insoluble or slightly soluble in water.
• They function primarily as food and energy stores (starch and

glycogen) and as structural molecules (cellulose and chitin).
• Starch is a polymer of α-glucose, and is a major fuel store in
plants. It has two components amylose (straight chain) and
amylopectin (branched).
Types of Polysaccharides
• Homo polysaccharides are made up of the
same repeating units
for example starch is made up of only
glucose units
• Hetero polysaccharides are made up of two
or more repeating units
for example glycoprotiens, glycolipids
Fig: Structure of starch, glycogen and cellulose.
Glycolipids and Lipopolysaccharides
• Membrane components
• Glycolipids:
--Lipids with covalently bound oligosaccarides
--Ganglioisides (membrane lipid +CHO)
• Lipopolysaccharides
-- Large molecules consisting of a lipid and a polysaccharide
joined by a covalent bond.
– Found on the surface of some bacteria
Bacterial Cell Wall
Rigid component of bacterial cell walls is a heteropolymer of

alternating (1  4)-linked N-acetylglucosamine and N-
acetylmuramic acid residues

Carbs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Carbs

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Carbs

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Carbohydrates

• are divided into four main classes:

• Their general formula is (CH2O)n.

• They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms as trioses

• Monosaccharides act as intermediates in metabolism, and are also the

• Stereoisomerism arise due to the reversal of orientation of molecules at chiral-C atom.

• The number of stereoisomers is 2n, where n is the number of asymmetric centers.

•They have the same name, e.g., D-glucose & L-glucose.

The α and β form differ in orientation of -OH group at first C-atom

R-OH + HO-R'  R-O-R' + H2O

• Lactose is made up of glucose and galactose

• Maltose is made up of two units of glucose

• Sucrose is made up of glucose and fructose

• They function primarily as food and energy stores (starch and

Rigid component of bacterial cell walls is a heteropolymer of

You might also like