Geodetic Positioning and Gravity Field

in Geodesy
Course Objective
 To become familiar with co-ordinate
system, different horizontal and vertical
positioning system
 To become familiar with earth gravity
system
 Chapter 1 : Introduction
• 1.1. The need for Positioning
• 1.2. Review of Co-ordinate system
 The Need for positioning
• Positioning: Determining position of any point relative to
a reference point.
• Where are you??? Nepal? Pokhara? WRC? Room?
Room number? Is it exact?
• How to identify a ship in the sea? Star in the sky?
• Control point establishment
• Maintenance of national geodetic networks (comparative
positioning study of Nagarkot Laplace station: 1.82 m elevation increase after earthquake 2072)

• Taking as reference station

• Identification of physical shifting of earth (remember
earthquake 2072)
 How?
• It requires distance from the point to the reference point (direct
distance with the horizontal component that is horizontal distance
and the vertical component that is vertical distance), direction,
which has two components: horizontal component and vertical
component).
• In classical geodesy, astronomical positioning is conducted by star
observations. Parallel to positioning, to study the earth gravity field
requires gravity data at the whole of the earth surface.
• In geodetic surveying, the computation of the geodetic coordinates
of points is performed on an ellipsoid which closely approximates
the size and shape of the earth in the area of the survey.
• Positioning are categorized into two types: Geodetic (local/global)
and Astronomic Positioning
Contd….
• There are three geodetic networks: geodetic
traverse, triangulation and trilateration.
 The Need for positioning

1. Determination of precise global, regional and

local three-dimensional positions (e.g. the
establishment of geodetic control)
2. Determination of Earth’s gravity field and linear
functions of this field (e.g. a precise geoid )
3. Measurement and modeling of geodynamical
phenomena (e.g. polar motion, Earth rotation,
crustal deformation)
Contd….
• International Association of Geodesy(IAG)
 scientific organization in the field of Geodesy
 promotes the scientific cooperation and research in
geodesy on a global scale and contribute to it through
its various research bodies
 promotes geodetic theory through research, by
collecting, analyzing, modelling, and interpreting
observational data, by stimulating technological
development
 also consistently represent the figure, rotation, and
gravity field of the earth and planets, and their
temporal variation.
Contd…..
 The International Association of Geodesy (IAG)
has four commissions, which are;
Commission 1 - Reference Frames
Commission 2 - Gravity Field
Commission 3 - Earth Rotation and
Geodynamics
Commission 4 - Positioning and Applications
Contd…
• Commission 4 mainly focuses on:
 determination of position on the space or on the surface of
earth(planet) using different instrument (system) , such as:
Inertial Navigation System(INS)
Global Navigation Satellite System(GNSS)
 carries out research and other activities that address the
broader areas of multi-sensor system theory and
application, on integrated guidance, navigation, positioning
and orientation of airborne and land-based platform.
Contd…
• Reference System
– A reference system consists of the adopted coordinate system
– In addition, it consists of a set of constants, models and
parameters, that are required in order to achieve a certain
degree of generality or idealization.
– It could define the constants of a reference ellipsoid or the
parameters of a reference gravity field.
– Since positioning and navigation are global activities, it is
important that the same set definitions is used everywhere.
– Internationally adopted conventions are necessary.
– The International Earth Rotation and Reference System Service
(IERS), a joint service of the International Association of
Geodesy (IAG) and of the International Astronomical Union
(IAU) prepares the definition of conventional reference systems
and their implementation.
– The examples are conventional International Celestial Reference
System (ICRS) is adopted by IAG and IAU, the international
terrestrial reference system (ITRS) by IAG etc.
Contd…
Contd…
• Reference Frame
– a reference frame contains all elements required for the
materialization of a reference system in real world. (it is the
library of all datasets that is to be used for defining the
coordinate system)
– In the case of space fixed or celestial frames it is essentially an
adopted catalogue of celestial objects such as stars or quasars,
– in the case of a terrestrial frame it is the catalogue of coordinates
of terrestrial points (stations, observatories) etc.
– The catalogues are chosen to be consistent with the
conventions of the corresponding reference system.
– The reference frames are changing almost every year because of
the dynamic nature of the earth(geodynamic phenomenons).
Contd…
• Mainly three types of reference systems:
– Space-fixed or inertial systems or Celestial reference system, in
which the positions of stars are fixed or almost fixed and in
which the motion of artificial satellites can be formulated.
– Earth centered earth fixed systems, in which all terrestrial
points can be expressed conveniently as well as vehicles in
motion on the earth's surface.
– Local horizon systems, fixed to observatories or instruments
and often oriented horizontally with one axis pointing
towards north.

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 Space-fixed reference systems (celestial
reference systems (CRS))
• Origin is chosen either the barycenter (center of mass of
the all the planet ) of the solar system or the mass centre
of the earth excluding the oceans.
• The coordinate system can be represented as (x,y,z) triad.
• The {x, y}-plane of a CRS could either be chosen to coincide
with the plane of the ecliptic(path traced by the sun) or
with the equator plane of the earth.
• The x-axis points in the direction of the vernal equinox.
• The z-axis points into the direction of the mean rotation
axis of the earth.
• The y-axis completes a right-handed system.
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 Space-fixed reference systems (celestial
reference systems (CRS))
• the direction to any object/event is
expressed by the two angles, right
ascension α and declination δ
• right ascension α is angle in the
equator plane counted from
vernal equinox.
• declination δ is elevation angle
counted from the equator plane.

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Contd…
 Earth-fixed reference systems (terrestrial
reference System TRS)
• They serve the description of the position of points on the earth's
surface or, in the case of navigation, that of the motion of a vehicle on
the earth's surface or close to it.
• Also geophysical processes such as weather, temperature, magnetic
or gravity field are expressed in earth fixed systems.
• All our maps are based upon an earth fixed reference system.
• Due to the advance of space techniques, precisions in positioning and
navigation became so incredibly high that the earth's surface cannot
be considered anymore solid and fixed.
• Temporal changes due to surface motions such as tectonic plate
motions and deformations due to tides or ocean and atmosphere
loading have to be taken into account.
• This complicates the definition and realization of an earth fixed
reference system severely.
• Such a system can provide a framework for global geophysical
monitoring and consequently play a prominent role in earth system
studies.
 Earth-fixed reference systems (terrestrial
reference system TRS)
• The origin of the coordinate system is defined as the centre of
mass of the earth including oceans and atmosphere.
• The coordinate system can be characterized by three mutually
perpendicular base vectors, let’s say (x,y,z)
• The {x, y}-plane coincides with a conventional equatorial plane
of
the earth.
• The x- axis lies by definition in the Greenwich meridian plane.
• The z- axis coincides the rotation axis of the earth, passes through
the terrestrial pole.
• This terrestrial pole is denoted conventional terrestrial pole (CTP)
or IERS reference pole (IRP).
• The y- axis completes the right-handed system.
TRS

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 Earth-fixed reference systems (terrestrial
reference system(TRS))

• The coordinate triad is accompanied by a mean earth

ellipsoid with:
– semi-major axis a = 6 378 137.0 m and
– flattening f = 1 / 298.257 222 101.
• It allows an easy conversion of Cartesian into geographical
coordinates
 Earth-fixed reference systems (terrestrial
reference system (TRS))
• The realization of the International Terrestrial Reference
System (ITRS) is denoted as International Terrestrial
Reference Frame (ITRF).
• It consists of an adopted global set of Cartesian station
coordinates and velocities.
• Almost annually a new ITRF is produced, based upon newest
observations and identified as ITRF.yy, where the numbers (yy)
following the designation ITRF specify the last year whose
data were used for the realization of the frame.
TRS and
TRF

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 Change in ITRF
• Various time variable effects on ITRF station
coordinates
– tectonic plate motions
– tides of the solid earth
– loading effects due to ocean loading
– atmospheric loading
– rotational deformation due to polar motion
– instrument effects (antenna deformation, motion of
antenna phase centres etc.)

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 Space techniques contributing to ITRS

• very long baseline interferometry (VLBI)

(high precision and long term stability)

• satellite laser ranging (SLR)

(long term stability and geo-centricity)

• lunar laser ranging (LLR)

(geo-centricity, long term stability, relativistic effects)

• the French tracking system DORIS

(excellent global station distribution)

• Global Positioning System 2

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(densest global network, short term stability, high

precision).
 Local horizontal reference systems
(Topocentric System)
• This class of systems is associated with an instrument such as a
GPS receiver, a VLBI telescope or a camera.
• They are located in the origin or reference point of the
instrument
• purpose is to determine the coordinates of this reference
point, either in CRS or in TRS.
• Local horizontal systems are introduced in order to express
the fixed or time variable pointing direction of the instrument
to a target point and in order to predict when and under
what angles a target will rise or fall.
• The orientation of base vectors of the local system can either
be defined by the local horizontal plane, north direction and
plumb line direction (zenith) or, in ellipsoidal or spherical
approximation, by the corresponding ellipsoidal or spherical
quantities.
 Local horizontal reference systems (topocentric
systems)
• The origin of the coordinate system is the instrument origin
(topocentre).
• The base vectors can be denoted by a triad lets say (x,y,z).
• The {x, y}-plane coincides with the local horizon (level surface).
• It is often approximated by an ellipsoidal or spherical reference
surface.
• The base vector x- points towards north.
• The z-axis points towards the zenith (or normal of the ellipsoid or
sphere).
• Base vector y- completes the left-handed orthonormal triad; it
points towards east.
• The angle to an object in the horizontal plane counted from
north (towards east) is called azimuth A,
• the angle to an object from the zenith is denoted zenith distance
z
• the elevation angle above the horizontal plane is called elevation
angle b.
• Thus, when tracking a satellite at a station its changing direction in
the horizontal system is expressed by the angles {A, z}.
Contd…
 Coordinate System
• Two main coordinate systems are used in satellite
Geodesy:
• Geocentric/3D-Cartesian Coordinate System
• Geodetic/Geographic/Ellipsoidal Coordinate System
• Astronomical Coordinate system

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3D-Cartesian Coordinate system
• A concentric Cartesian coordinate system X, Y , Z can be
defined within the ellipsoid
– origin at the center O of the ellipsoid (geo center)
– Z-axis directed to the northern ellipsoidal pole (along
the minor axis),
– X-axis directed to the ellipsoidal zero meridian,
– Y -axis completing a right-handed system.

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Contd…
 Spherical Co-ordinate system
• A spherical Co-ordinate system is a
co-ordinate system for three-dimensional
space where the position of a point is
specified by three numbers:

i. radial distance(r) of that point from

a fixed origin,
ii. polar angle (θ)measured from a
fixed zenith direction,
iii. azimuth angle(ɸ) of its orthogonal
projection on a reference plane that
passes through the origin and is
orthogonal to the zenith, measured from a fixed
reference direction on that plane.
 Contd…
• The polar distance should be always greater of equal to Zero
r0
• The azimuthal angle is: 0    
• The polar angel or Zenith angle : 0 ≤  θ  ≤ 2
Ellipsoidal Coordinate System
• A best possible approximation to the figure of the whole
Earth is a global ellipsoidal system.
• The ellipsoidal/geographic coordinates are represented
as
– ϕ ellipsoidal latitude
– λ ellipsoidal longitude
– h ellipsoidal height.

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Ellipsoidal Coordinate
System

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Contd…

Fig: Geodetic/Ellipsoidal