Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

(PCC 3)

M. Tech Semester II
CoEP, Pune

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 1

 Mechanical Behaviour of Materials - Syllabus
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• Mechanical Properties of Materials

• Theory of Plasticity
• Dislocation Theory
• Strengthening Mechanism
• Fracture Mechanics and Fracture Toughness Evaluation
• Fatigue of Metals
• Creep and Stress Rupture

Text Book
Mechanical Metallurgy – George E Dieter, SI Metric Edition, 1988, McGraw Hill Book Co. Ltd., UK

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 2

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Mechanical Properties of Materials

• Strengthening Mechanism
• Strengthening of Grain Boundaries
• Yield Point Phenomenon
• Strain Ageing
• Solid Solution Strengthening
• Strengthening from fine particles
• Fiber Strengthening
• Martensite Strengthening

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 3

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Strengthening Mechanism
• Strength is inversely related to dislocation mobility
• High strengths are obtained by various techniques, including
• Fine grain size
• large additions of solute atoms
• addition of fine particles
• phase transformations
• Grain Boundary Strengthening
• Boundary between grains are a region of disturbed lattice only a
few atomic diameters wide
• Crystallographic orientation changes abruptly in passing from one
grain to the next
• For low angle boundary where the orientation difference across the
boundary may be less than 10, the boundary is composed of a regular
array of dislocations.
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 Grain Boundary Strengthening
Regions of disturbed
lattice/lacks periodicity
as within a crystal

Gbs play very important

role in deformation
behaviour of polycrystals

Passage of dislocation through Grain boundaries are

more efficient barrier
Gbs is difficult -  m /10 than dislocations!!!

At T< 0.5Tm Gbs act as strong barrier to dislocation motion

The only strengthening mechanism which

increases strength as well as toughness
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Hall-Petch Relation
• Proposed the relationship between YS (and other mechanical
properties) and grain size
• σ0 = σi + kD-1/2 --------------------------------------- (6-6)
• where σ0 = the YS
• σi = “friction stress” representing the overall resistance of the
crystal lattice to dislocation movement
• k = “locking parameter”, which measures the relative hardening
contribution of the grain boundaries
• D = grain dia
• Original dislocation model for the Hall-Petch equation was based
on the concept that grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation
motion.
• Consider a dislocation source at the center of a grain D which
sends out dislocations to pile-up at the grain boundary
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Hall-Petch Relation: The stress at the tip of this pile-up must exceed
some critical shear stress τ c to continue slip past the grain-boundary barrier.
• From Eqn (5-38) we have
•

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Hall-Petch Relation
• A more general model proposed by Li concentrates on the influence of
grain size on the dislocation density, and hence, on the Yield or Flow
stress.
•The flow stress is given in terms of dislocation density by

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Yield-Point Phenomenon
• Many metals, including low-C steels, show a localized,
heterogeneous type of transition from Elastic to Plastic
deformation, which produces a Yield Point in stress-strain curve.
• Upper Yield Point: The load at which
sudden drop occurs
• Lower Yield Point: The constant Load
• Yield-Point Elongation: Elongation
which occurs at constant load

• Deformation throughout the Y-P

elongation is heterogeneous.
• At Upper Y-P, a discrete band of
•The bands are
deformed metal appears at a stress
concentration (e.g., fillet) and generally ~450 to
tensile axis, called
coincident with the formation of the
band, the load drops to lower Y-P. Luders band, or
• The band then propagates along the stretcher strains
specimen length, causing Y-P
elongation.
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Yield-Point Phenomenon
• After the Luders bands propagate to the entire length of the
specimen, the flow will increase with strain in the usual manner.
This marks the end of Y-P elongation.
• Y-P phenomenon observed in a number of metals:
• Polycrystals of Low Carbon Steel, Mo, Ti and Al-alloys
• Single crystals of Fe, Cd, Zn, Alpha and Beta Brass, and Al.
• Usually, the YP can be associated with small amounts of
interstitial or substitutional impurities
• Complete removal of C and N from low C-Steels by wet Hydrogen
treatment removes the YP.
• Even as small as 0.001 % of either of these elements makes YP re-
appear.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 16

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Yield-Point Phenomenon
• Onset of general yielding occurs at a stress where the average
dislocation sources can create slip bands through a good volume
of the material. Thus, the general YS can be expressed as
• σo = σs + σi ------------------------------------(6-18)
where σs is the stress to operate the dislocation
σi is the friction stress representing the combined effect of
all the obstacles to the motion of dislocations arising from the
sources
• If stress to operate the sources is high, then the initial YS is high
• Explanation of The Y-P phenomenon :
• the dislocation sources are locked by solute atoms interactions.
• C or N atoms in Fe readily diffuse to the position of minimum
energy just below the extra plane of atoms in a +ve edge dislocation

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Yield-Point Phenomenon : Explanation of The Y-P phenomenon

• The elastic strain is so strong that the impurity atmosphere becomes
completely saturated and condenses into a row of atoms along the
core of the dislocation.
• The break-away stress required to pull a dislocation away from a
line of solute atoms is
• σ = A/b2ro2
where A is given by Eq.(5-35) and ro ~ 0.2 nm is the distance from
the dislocation core to the line of solute atoms.
• When the dislocation line is pulled free from the influence of the
solute atoms, slip can occur at a lower stress.
• Alternately, where dislocations are strongly pinned, e.g., by C & N
in Fe, new dislocations must be generated to allow the flow stress
to drop. This explains the origin of the Upper YP.
• The dislocations released into the slip plane piles-up at grain
boundaries.
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Yield-Point Phenomenon
• Explanation of The Y-P phenomenon :
• The pile-up produces a stress concentration at its tip which
combines with the applied stress in the next grain to unlock sources,
thereby a Luders band propagates over the specimen.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 19

 Theory of Plasticity
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• Strain Ageing
• It is a type of behaviour, usually associated with Y-P
phenomenon, in which the strength of a metal is increased and
ductility decreased on heating at a relatively low temperature
after cold work.
• This behaviour illustrating (Fig. 6-9) effect of strain aging on
flow curve of a low C-Steel.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 20

 Theory of Plasticity
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• Strain Ageing
• Region A : Specimen strained plastically through the Y-P
elongation to a strain X.
• Region B : Specimen is unloaded and re-loaded up to a strain Y
and again un-loaded.
• On re-loading the YP does not occur since the dislocations have
been torn away from the atmosphere of C and N atoms
• Region C : Specimen is re-loaded after aging for several hours at
around 400 K
• The YP re-appears, due to diffusion of C and N atoms to the
dislocations to form new atmosphere of interstitials anchoring the
dislocations
• The YP is increased by aging treatment from Y to Z.
• To control strain aging, it is desirable to lower the C & N in
solution by adding elements which will take part of the interstitials
out of solution by forming stable carbides or nitrides
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Strain Ageing
• Strain aging is also associated with occurrence of serrations in
the stress-strain curve (discontinuous or repeated yielding).
• Dynamic strain aging behaviour called Portevin-LeChatelier effect.
• The solute atoms are able to diffuse in the specimen at a rate
faster than the speed of dislocations so as to catch and lock them.
• The load, therefore, must increase and when the dislocations are
torn away from the solute atoms, the load drops.
• This process occurs many times, causing serrations.

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 Solid-Solution-Hardening/strengthening
When the dislocation mobility in a solid is
restricted by the introduction of solute
atoms, the resultant strengthening is
called solid-solution-hardening, and the
alloy is called a solid solution.
Solutes can be of two types

interstitial substitutional
Solute atom is much smaller Solute and solvent atoms are
than the solvent atoms : solute of comparable size : solute
occupy interstitial sites occupy lattice points
 FCC metals- alloying

Matrix (host) - Cu
Alloying Elements-
Be, Si, Sn, Al
Ni and Zn

Note elements of
different size
impart hardening of
different degree

Size difference more :

solubility is lower
 BCC: Ferritic steel An example of the strengthening that
can be achieved by solid solution in
which we plot the increase in yield
stress of steel as a function of the
content of the solute.
Note that solutes such as C and N,
which go into interstitial positions of
the iron lattice, have much larger
strengthening effects than
substitutional atoms such as Mn.

(a) Increase in strength, σ, of steel as a function of content of

solute. The solid lines represent substitutional solute additions,
while the dashed line represents interstitial solute additions.
Hume – Rothery Rules
Small means : smaller than the hole size provided by the matrix
Big means: larger than the hole size provided by the matrix
10.3 Mechanical Effects Associated with Solid Solutions

Many important mechanical effects are associated with the

phenomenon of solid solution.
• In the case of steels, solute-dislocation interaction leads to a
migration of interstitial solute atoms to a dislocation, where they form
an atmosphere around it.
• This solute atmosphere, called the Cottrell atmosphere, has the effect
of locking-in the dislocation, making it necessary to apply more force to
free the dislocation from the atmosphere.
• This results in the well-known phenomenon of a pronounced yield drop
in annealed low-carbon steels.

A word of caution is in order here. Temperature is an important

variable in the migration of solute atoms to a dislocation.
•If the temperature is too low, the solute may not be able to diffuse to
allow a redistribution of solute atoms to dislocations.
• Such a redistribution may be thermodynamically expected, but if the
temperature is too low, it will not occur in a reasonable length of time.
• At very high temperatures (>0.5Tm, where Tm is the melting point in
kelvin), the mobility of foreign atoms will be much higher than that of
dislocations, with the result that they will not restrict dislocation
motion.
10.3 Mechanical Effects Associated with Solid Solutions

In the range of temperatures where solute atoms and dislocations are

about equally mobile, strong interactions with dislocations occur. The
serrated stress--strain curve (or the Portevin--Le Chatelier effect) is
another manifestation of this.

We next describe some technologically important effects of solid-

solution hardening.
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Solid Solution Strengthening

• Size factor alone cannot explain solid solution hardening.
• An improvement in correlation of data results when the relative
valence of the solute and solvent are considered in addition to the
lattice-parameter distortion.
• The importance of valence is shown in Fig. 6-11, where the YS of
Cu-alloys of constant lattice parameter is plotted against the
electron-atom ratio
•

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Solid Solution Strengthening

• The usual result of solute additions is to raise the YS and the
level of the stress-strain curve as a whole.
• Since the alloy additions affect the entire stress-strain curve, it can
be concluded that solute atoms have more influence on the
frictional resistance to dislocation motion σ than on the static
locking of dislocations.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 39

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Solid Solution Strengthening

• Solute atoms can interact with dislocations by the following
mechanisms:
• Elastic interaction **
• Modulus interaction **
• Stacking fault interaction##
• Electrical interaction##
• Short range interaction ##
• Long range interaction. **

** they are long range, i.e., they are relatively insensitive to

temperature and continue to act to about 0.6Tm.

## these three interactions constitute short range barriers and only

contribute strongly to the flow stress at lower temperatures.
Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 40
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Elastic Interaction
• Elastic interaction between solute atoms and dislocations arises
from the mutual interaction of elastic stress fields which
surround mis-fitting solute atoms and the core of edge
dislocations.
• The relative size factor is εa = 1/a(da/dc) where a is the lattice
parameter and c is the atomic concentration of the solute.
• Strengthening due to elastic interaction is directly proportional
to the misfit of the solute.
• Modulus Interaction
• It occurs if the presence of a solute atom locally alters the
modulus of the crystal.
• If the solute has a smaller shear modulus than the matrix the
energy of the strain field of the dislocation will reduce and there
will be an attraction between solute and matrix.
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Stacking Fault Interaction
• It arises because solute atoms preferentially segregate to the
stacking faults contained in extended dislocations.
•As the concentration of the solute within the stacking fault
increases it lowers the stacking-fault energy and increases the
separation of the partial dislocations.
• Therefore, the motion of the extended dislocations is made more
difficult.
• Electrical Interaction
• Some of the charge associated with solute atoms of dissimilar
valence remains localized around the solute atom.
• The solute atoms become charge centers and can interact with
dislocations which have electrical dipoles.
• Electrical interaction is much weaker than the elastic and
modulus interaction.
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Short Range Order Interaction
• It arises from the tendency of solute atoms to arrange
themselves so that they have more than the equilibrium
number of dissimilar neighbours.
• The opposite of short range order is ‘clustering’ where like solute
atoms tend to group together in regions of the lattice.
• Strengthening occurs because the movement of dislocations
through a region of short range order or clustering reduces the
degree of local order.
• This process of disordering will cause an increase in energy of
the alloy, and, to sustain the energetically unfavourable dislocation
motion, extra work must be provided.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 43

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Long Range Order Interaction
• It arises in alloys which form super-lattices.
• In super-lattice there is long-range periodic arrangement of
dissimilar atoms.
• Movement of dislocations through a super-lattice creates regions
of disorder called ‘anti-phase boundaries’ (APB), because the
atoms across the slip plane have become “out of phase” with
respect to the energetically preferred super-lattice structure.
• The stress required to move a dislocation through a long-range
region is
τo = γ/t --------------------------------(6-23)
where γ is the energy of APB and t is the spacing of the APBs.
• Because more APBs are produced as slip proceeds, the rate of
strain hardening is higher in the ordered condition than the
disordered state.
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Strengthening from Fine Precipitates
• Small 2nd phase particles distributed in a ductile matrix are a
common source of alloy strengthening.
• Precipitation hardening or age hardening is produced by
solution treating and quenching in which a 2nd phase is in solid
solution at the elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature.
• For precipitation hardening to occur, the 2nd phase must be
soluble at an elevated temperature but must exhibit decreasing
solubility with decreasing temperature.
• By contrast, the 2nd phase in dispersion hardening system
(powder metallurgy technique) has very little solubility in the
matrix, even at elevated temperatures.
• Usually, there is atomic matching or ‘coherency’ between the
lattices of the precipitate and the matrix, while in dispersion-
hardened systems there generally is no coherency.
Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 45
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Strengthening from Fine Precipitates
• The degree of strengthening resulting from 2nd phase particles
depends on the distribution of particles in the ductile matrix.
• In addition to shape, the 2nd phase dispersion can be described
by specifying the volume fraction, avg particle dia, and mean
inter-particle spacing.
• The strongest alloys are produced by combining the effects of
precipitation and strain hardening.
• If plastic deformation precedes the aging treatment, a finer
dispersion is produced when particles nucleate on the dislocations
in the matrix
• A critical parameter of the dispersion of particles is the inter-
particle spacing λ
λ = [4(1-f)r] / 3f --------------------(6-28)
Where f is the volume fraction of spherical particles of radius r.
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 Precipitation Hardening

Strengthening of one phase by another phase

finely distributed/dispersed in it

Several metallic alloy systems exhibit precipitation hardening

Al-Cu
Al-Li
PH- steel
Maraging steel
Nickel base superalloys
Cu-2% Be
 Requirement of a precipitation hardening system

 Uniform distribution

+CuAl2

Decreasing solid solubility with

decreasing temperature
 T0 is in the single
phase of the alloy

Sometimes, a cold work may done between Solution annealing and ageing treatment
 

 is CuAl2
Transition phase/phases

’ , GP-I and GP-II are not shown in phase diagram as they are transition phases
GP-I

GP-II

’
 Al-4% Cu
 Sequence of precipitation
1 nm thick X10-15 nm 
GP-I > GP-II > ’ to 

(Discs of 25 atoms x 1 atom)

Decrease in hardness after

a maximum ? –equilibrium
phase form ()
Changes in properties accompanying precipitation
 Hardness vs Ageing time
Maximum hardness increases with solute
Note the condition for
content at a given ageing temperature
max. of each curve

130°C

170°C

Note peak
shifting to
lower ageing
Maximum hardness is
times
obtained at lower ageing
temperature
 As shown in phase diagram
Sequence of precipitation :
GP-I
GP-II ’ 
Variation of strength with particle size, defining the
deformable and non-deformable particle regimes
 Critical precipitate particle radius for transition
from
cutting to looping R c= 2Gb 2
/’
Equation for Orwan looping o = Gb/d
Critical stress for cutting c = R’/2bd
To estimate let us put reasonable values of parameters ’, G
and b , the transition occurs at around 100Angstrom for a
stress level of G/100.
Assumption particles do not contain dislocations

At, G = G’, b= b’ RC = 20b Coherent precipitates

In coherent precipitates
G’= 10G, b’= 1.5 b RC = 2b
It implies that in-coherent precipitates will not be (’ = 0.03G’b’)
sheared at stress level of YS of the matrix
Conclusion : incoherent particles will not be sheared at Y.S. of the metal matrix
unless the elastic moduli only slightly greater than those of the matrix and size
smaller than 100A
note
note
Chemical hardening
When a dislocation actually passes through a zone as shown
in Figure , a change in the number of solvent solute near-
neighbours occurs across the slip plane. This tends to
reverse the process of clustering and, hence, additional
work must be done by the applied stress to bring this about

Ordered particle (a) cut by dislocations in (b) to

produce new interface and APB.
This process, known as chemical hardening, provides a short-
range interaction between dislocations and precipitates and
arises from three possible causes: (i) the energy required to
create an additional Particle matrix interface with energy 1
per unit area which is provided by a stress

where α is a numerical constant, (ii) the additional work

required to create an anti-phase boundary inside the particle
with ordered structure, given by

where β is a numerical constant and (iii) the change in

width of a dissociated dislocation as it passes through the
particle where the stacking fault energy differs from the
matrix (e.g. Al-Ag where ΔγSF  100 mJ m-2 between Ag
zones and Al matrix) so that
Usually 1 < abp and so 1 can be neglected, but the
ordering within the particle requires the dislocations to
glide in pairs. This leads to a strengthening given by

where T is the dislocation line tension.

 contribution from various sources

looping

Orwan relation
  1/d

( size of ppt)
Solid solution
Coherency
Cutting
Characteristics of precipitate
looping
Schematic representation of a dislocation (a) curling round the
stress fields from precipitates and (b) passing between widely
spaced precipitates (Orowan looping).
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Materials of high strength can be produced by incorporating fine
fibers in a ductile matrix.
• The fibers must have high strength and high elastic modulus, while
the matrix must be ductile and non-reactive with the fibers.
• Most fiber strengthened materials use fiber of B or Graphite or
metal wires such as Tungsten.
•Fibers may be long and continuous or discontinuous.
• An important distinction between fiber-strengthened and
dispersion strengthened metals is that in fiber strengthening the
high modulus fiber carry essentially all of the load.
• The matrix serves to transmit the load to the fibers, to protect
fibers from surface damage, and to separate the individual fibers
and blunt cracks which arise from fiber breakage.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 86

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Strength and Moduli of Composite.
• THE MODULUS and Strength of a fiber-reinforced composite are
given by a ‘rule of mixtures’.
• If we apply a tensile force P in the direction of the fiber, we can
assume that the fiber and the matrix will strain equally
ef = em = e c
P = σfAf + σmAm
Where Af and Am are the cross-sectional areas of fiber and matrix
• The average composite strength is σc = P/Ac
where Ac = Af + Am
σc = P/Ac = σfAf /Ac + σmAm /Ac

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Strength and Moduli of Composite.

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• The uniaxial tensile stress-strain curves for unidirectional
continuous fibers show 4 stages
• In Stage 1, both fibers and matrix undergo elastic deformation.
• Stage 2, the matrix deforms plastically and the fiber elastically
• Stage 3, when fiber and matrix undergo plastic deformation
• Stage 4, the fibers fracture and the composite as a whole soon
fractures

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Load Transfer
• The matrix acts to transfer the load to the fibers.
• The bond between the matrix and the fiber is the agent for load
transfer, represented by the interfacial shear stress τ i.
• The existence of the bond strength builds up stresses in the fibers
• Anisotropy
• A unidirectional array of fibers in a matrix is a highly anisotropic
material.
• When such a composite is loaded at an angle to the fibers, 3 strength
parameters must be considered.
• The stress required to produce failure by flow parallel to the fibers is
σc .
• The shear stress required to produce failure by shear in the matrix or
at the fiber-matrix interface is τ s,
• σs is the tensile stress required to produce failure of the composite in a
direction perpendicular to the fibers.
Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 90
 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Anisotropy
•The tensile stress to produce failure of the composite by fracture of
the fibers is
σ = σcsec2ϕ --------(6-51)
• If failure occurs by shear in the direction of the fibers on a
plane parallel to the fibers, the failure stress is
σ = 2τsCosec2ϕ -----------(6-52)
• Failure by flow of the matrix transverse to the fibers or tensile
failure of the interface requires a stress
σ = σsCosec2ϕ -----------(6-53)
• These failure criteria are plotted in Fig.6-25, where it is seen that
the strength of a unidirectional composite falls off significantly at
small departures from the fiber orientation.

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 91

 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Fiber Strengthening
• Anisotropy

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Martensitic Strengthening
• The transformation of austenite to martensite by a diffusionless
shear-type transformation in quenching is one of the most
common strengthening processes used in engineering materials.
• Fig. 6-26 shows how the hardness of martensite varies with C
content and compares this degree of strengthening with that
achieved in dispersed aggregates or Fe and Cementite.
• THE high strength of martensite implies that there are many
strong barriers to dislocation motion in this structure..
• There are 2 main contributions to the high strength of martensite
• The conventional martensite has a plate structure with parallel
twins each about 0.1 μm thick within the plates.
• The other type of martensite structure contains high dislocation
density of 109 to 1010 mm-2.
• Thus part of the high strength of martensite arises from the
effective barriers to slip by fine twins or high dislocation density.
Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 93
 Strengthening Mechanism
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 Strengthening Mechanism
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• Martensitic Strengthening
•There are 2 main contributions to the high strength of martensite
•.The 2nd important contribution to the strength comes from C-
atoms.
• Fig. 6-26 shows that hardness is very sensitive to C-content < 0.4%
• A strong binding is set between dislocations and the C-atoms

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 Strengthening Mechanism
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•

Thank you
?

Dr. Madhu Ranjan 2018-19 96