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Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques: - Slides For Textbook - Chapter 7

This chapter discusses classification and prediction techniques in data mining. It covers the basic concepts of classification vs prediction, the classification process, and issues in data preparation and model evaluation. Several classification algorithms are also introduced including decision tree induction, Bayesian classification, neural networks, and support vector machines.

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Nikhil Tengli
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views88 pages

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques: - Slides For Textbook - Chapter 7

This chapter discusses classification and prediction techniques in data mining. It covers the basic concepts of classification vs prediction, the classification process, and issues in data preparation and model evaluation. Several classification algorithms are also introduced including decision tree induction, Bayesian classification, neural networks, and support vector machines.

Uploaded by

Nikhil Tengli
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Data Mining:

Concepts and Techniques


— Slides for Textbook —
— Chapter 7 —

©Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber


Department of Computer Science
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
www.cs.uiuc.edu/~hanj
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1
Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2
Classification vs. Prediction
 Classification:
 predicts categorical class labels (discrete or nominal)

 classifies data (constructs a model) based on the training

set and the values (class labels) in a classifying attribute


and uses it in classifying new data
 Prediction:
 models continuous-valued functions, i.e., predicts

unknown or missing values


 Typical Applications
 credit approval

 target marketing

 medical diagnosis

 treatment effectiveness analysis

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3


Classification—A Two-Step Process
 Model construction: describing a set of predetermined classes
 Each tuple/sample is assumed to belong to a predefined class,

as determined by the class label attribute


 The set of tuples used for model construction is training set

 The model is represented as classification rules, decision trees,

or mathematical formulae
 Model usage: for classifying future or unknown objects
 Estimate accuracy of the model

 The known label of test sample is compared with the

classified result from the model


 Accuracy rate is the percentage of test set samples that are

correctly classified by the model


 Test set is independent of training set, otherwise over-fitting

will occur
 If the accuracy is acceptable, use the model to classify data

tuples whose class labels are not known


October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4
Classification Process (1): Model
Construction
Classification
Algorithms
Training
Data

NAME RANK YEARS TENURED Classifier


Mike Assistant Prof 3 no (Model)
Mary Assistant Prof 7 yes
Bill Professor 2 yes
Jim Associate Prof 7 yes IF rank = ‘professor’
Dave Assistant Prof 6 no
OR years > 6
Anne Associate Prof 3 no
THEN tenured = ‘yes’
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5
Classification Process (2): Use the
Model in Prediction

Classifier

Testing
Data Unseen Data

(Jeff, Professor, 4)
NAME RANK YEARS TENURED
Tom Assistant Prof 2 no Tenured?
Merlisa Associate Prof 7 no
George Professor 5 yes
Joseph Assistant Prof 7 yes
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 6
Supervised vs. Unsupervised
Learning
 Supervised learning (classification)
 Supervision: The training data (observations,
measurements, etc.) are accompanied by labels
indicating the class of the observations
 New data is classified based on the training set
 Unsupervised learning (clustering)
 The class labels of training data is unknown
 Given a set of measurements, observations, etc. with
the aim of establishing the existence of classes or
clusters in the data
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7
Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8
Issues Regarding Classification and Prediction
(1): Data Preparation

 Data cleaning
 Preprocess data in order to reduce noise and handle
missing values
 Relevance analysis (feature selection)
 Remove the irrelevant or redundant attributes
 Data transformation
 Generalize and/or normalize data

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9


Issues regarding classification and prediction
(2): Evaluating Classification Methods

 Predictive accuracy
 Speed and scalability
 time to construct the model

 time to use the model

 Robustness
 handling noise and missing values

 Scalability
 efficiency in disk-resident databases

 Interpretability:
 understanding and insight provided by the model

 Goodness of rules
 decision tree size

 compactness of classification rules

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11
Training Dataset

age income student credit_rating buys_computer


<=30 high no fair no
This <=30 high no excellent no
31…40 high no fair yes
follows an >40 medium no fair yes
example >40 low yes fair yes
from >40 low yes excellent no
31…40 low yes excellent yes
Quinlan’s <=30 medium no fair no
ID3 <=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium yes excellent yes
31…40 medium no excellent yes
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12


Output: A Decision Tree for “buys_computer”

age?

<=30 overcast
30..40 >40

student? yes credit rating?

no yes excellent fair

no yes no yes

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13


Algorithm for Decision Tree Induction
 Basic algorithm (a greedy algorithm)
 Tree is constructed in a top-down recursive divide-and-conquer

manner
 At start, all the training examples are at the root

 Attributes are categorical (if continuous-valued, they are

discretized in advance)
 Examples are partitioned recursively based on selected attributes

 Test attributes are selected on the basis of a heuristic or

statistical measure (e.g., information gain)


 Conditions for stopping partitioning
 All samples for a given node belong to the same class

 There are no remaining attributes for further partitioning –

majority voting is employed for classifying the leaf


 There are no samples left

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14


Attribute Selection Measure:
Information Gain (ID3/C4.5)
 Select the attribute with the highest information gain
 S contains si tuples of class Ci for i = {1, …, m}
 information measures info required to classify any
arbitrary tuple m
si si
I( s1,s2,...,sm )   log 2
i 1 s s
 entropy of attribute A with values {a1,a2,…,av}
v
s1 j  ...  smj
E(A)   I ( s1 j ,..., smj )
j 1 s

 information gained by branching on attribute A


Gain(A)  I(s 1, s 2 ,..., sm)  E(A)

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15


Attribute Selection by Information
Gain Computation
 Class P: buys_computer = “yes” 5 4
E ( age)  I ( 2,3)  I (4,0)
 Class N: buys_computer = “no” 14 14
 I(p, n) = I(9, 5) =0.940 5
 I (3,2)  0.694
 Compute the entropy for age: 14
age pi ni I(pi, ni) 5
I (2,3) means “age <=30” has 5
<=30 2 3 0.971 14
out of 14 samples, with 2 yes’es
30…40 4 0 0 and 3 no’s. Hence
>40 3 2 0.971
age income student credit_rating buys_computer Gain(age)  I ( p, n)  E (age)  0.246
<=30 high no fair no
<=30 high no excellent no
31…40 high no fair yes Similarly,
>40 medium no fair yes
>40 low yes fair yes
>40
31…40 low
low yes
yes
excellent
excellent
no
yes
Gain(income)  0.029
Gain( student )  0.151
<=30 medium no fair no
<=30 low yes fair yes
>40 medium yes fair yes
<=30 medium
31…40 medium
yes
no
excellent
excellent
yes
yes
Gain(credit _ rating )  0.048
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40October 14, 2020 no
medium excellent Data Mining:
no Concepts and Techniques 16
Other Attribute Selection Measures

 Gini index (CART, IBM IntelligentMiner)


 All attributes are assumed continuous-valued
 Assume there exist several possible split values for
each attribute
 May need other tools, such as clustering, to get the
possible split values
 Can be modified for categorical attributes

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17


Gini Index (IBM IntelligentMiner)
 If a data set T contains examples from n classes, gini index,
gini(T) is defined as gini(T )  1
n
p2  j
j 1
where pj is the relative frequency of class j in T.
 If a data set T is split into two subsets T1 and T2 with sizes
N1 and N2 respectively, the gini index of the split data
contains examples from n classes, the gini index gini(T) is
defined as
N 1 gini( )  N 2 gini( )
gini split (T )  T1 T2
N N
 The attribute provides the smallest ginisplit(T) is chosen to
split the node (need to enumerate all possible splitting
points for each attribute).
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18
Extracting Classification Rules from Trees

 Represent the knowledge in the form of IF-THEN rules


 One rule is created for each path from the root to a leaf
 Each attribute-value pair along a path forms a conjunction
 The leaf node holds the class prediction
 Rules are easier for humans to understand
 Example
IF age = “<=30” AND student = “no” THEN buys_computer = “no”
IF age = “<=30” AND student = “yes” THEN buys_computer = “yes”
IF age = “31…40” THEN buys_computer = “yes”
IF age = “>40” AND credit_rating = “excellent” THEN buys_computer =
“yes”
IF age = “<=30” AND credit_rating = “fair” THEN buys_computer = “no”

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19


Avoid Overfitting in Classification
 Overfitting: An induced tree may overfit the training data
 Too many branches, some may reflect anomalies due

to noise or outliers
 Poor accuracy for unseen samples

 Two approaches to avoid overfitting


 Prepruning: Halt tree construction early—do not split a

node if this would result in the goodness measure


falling below a threshold
 Difficult to choose an appropriate threshold

 Postpruning: Remove branches from a “fully grown”

tree—get a sequence of progressively pruned trees


 Use a set of data different from the training data to

decide which is the “best pruned tree”


October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20
Approaches to Determine the Final
Tree Size
 Separate training (2/3) and testing (1/3) sets
 Use cross validation, e.g., 10-fold cross validation
 Use all the data for training
 but apply a statistical test (e.g., chi-square) to
estimate whether expanding or pruning a node may
improve the entire distribution
 Use minimum description length (MDL) principle
 halting growth of the tree when the encoding is
minimized

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21


Enhancements to basic decision
tree induction
 Allow for continuous-valued attributes
 Dynamically define new discrete-valued attributes that
partition the continuous attribute value into a discrete
set of intervals
 Handle missing attribute values
 Assign the most common value of the attribute
 Assign probability to each of the possible values
 Attribute construction
 Create new attributes based on existing ones that are
sparsely represented
 This reduces fragmentation, repetition, and replication
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22
Classification in Large Databases

 Classification—a classical problem extensively studied by


statisticians and machine learning researchers
 Scalability: Classifying data sets with millions of examples
and hundreds of attributes with reasonable speed
 Why decision tree induction in data mining?
 relatively faster learning speed (than other classification

methods)
 convertible to simple and easy to understand

classification rules
 can use SQL queries for accessing databases

 comparable classification accuracy with other methods

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 23


Scalable Decision Tree Induction
Methods in Data Mining Studies
 SLIQ (EDBT’96 — Mehta et al.)
 builds an index for each attribute and only class list and

the current attribute list reside in memory


 SPRINT (VLDB’96 — J. Shafer et al.)
 constructs an attribute list data structure

 PUBLIC (VLDB’98 — Rastogi & Shim)


 integrates tree splitting and tree pruning: stop growing

the tree earlier


 RainForest (VLDB’98 — Gehrke, Ramakrishnan & Ganti)
 separates the scalability aspects from the criteria that

determine the quality of the tree


 builds an AVC-list (attribute, value, class label)

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24


Data Cube-Based Decision-Tree
Induction
 Integration of generalization with decision-tree induction
(Kamber et al’97).
 Classification at primitive concept levels
 E.g., precise temperature, humidity, outlook, etc.
 Low-level concepts, scattered classes, bushy
classification-trees
 Semantic interpretation problems.
 Cube-based multi-level classification
 Relevance analysis at multi-levels.
 Information-gain analysis with dimension + level.
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25
Presentation of Classification Results

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26


Visualization of a Decision Tree in
SGI/MineSet 3.0

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 27


Interactive Visual Mining by
Perception-Based Classification (PBC)

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29
Bayesian Classification: Why?
 Probabilistic learning: Calculate explicit probabilities for
hypothesis, among the most practical approaches to certain
types of learning problems
 Incremental: Each training example can incrementally
increase/decrease the probability that a hypothesis is
correct. Prior knowledge can be combined with observed
data.
 Probabilistic prediction: Predict multiple hypotheses,
weighted by their probabilities
 Standard: Even when Bayesian methods are computationally
intractable, they can provide a standard of optimal decision
making against which other methods can be measured

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30


Bayesian Theorem: Basics

 Let X be a data sample whose class label is unknown


 Let H be a hypothesis that X belongs to class C
 For classification problems, determine P(H/X): the
probability that the hypothesis holds given the observed
data sample X
 P(H): prior probability of hypothesis H (i.e. the initial
probability before we observe any data, reflects the
background knowledge)
 P(X): probability that sample data is observed
 P(X|H) : probability of observing the sample X, given that
the hypothesis holds

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31


Bayesian Theorem

 Given training data X, posteriori probability of a hypothesis


H, P(H|X) follows the Bayes theorem
P(H | X )  P( X | H )P(H )
P( X )
 Informally, this can be written as
posterior =likelihood x prior / evidence
 MAP (maximum posteriori) hypothesis
h  arg max P(h | D)  arg max P(D | h)P(h).
MAP hH hH

 Practical difficulty: require initial knowledge of many


probabilities, significant computational cost
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32
Naïve Bayes Classifier

 A simplified assumption: attributes are conditionally


independent:
n
P( X | C i)   P( x k | C i)
k 1
 The product of occurrence of say 2 elements x1 and x2,
given the current class is C, is the product of the
probabilities of each element taken separately, given the
same class P([y1,y2],C) = P(y1,C) * P(y2,C)
 No dependence relation between attributes
 Greatly reduces the computation cost, only count the class
distribution.
 Once the probability P(X|Ci) is known, assign X to the class
with maximum P(X|Ci)*P(Ci)
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33
Training dataset

age income student credit_rating buys_computer


Class: <=30 high no fair no
C1:buys_computer= <=30 high no excellent no
‘yes’ 30…40 high no fair yes
C2:buys_computer= >40 medium no fair yes
‘no’ >40 low yes fair yes
>40 low yes excellent no
Data sample 31…40 low yes excellent yes
X =(age<=30, <=30 medium no fair no
Income=medium, <=30 low yes fair yes
Student=yes >40 medium yes fair yes
Credit_rating= <=30 medium yes excellent yes
Fair) 31…40 medium no excellent yes
31…40 high yes fair yes
>40 medium no excellent no

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34


Naïve Bayesian Classifier: Example
 Compute P(X/Ci) for each class

P(age=“<30” | buys_computer=“yes”) = 2/9=0.222


P(age=“<30” | buys_computer=“no”) = 3/5 =0.6
P(income=“medium” | buys_computer=“yes”)= 4/9 =0.444
P(income=“medium” | buys_computer=“no”) = 2/5 = 0.4
P(student=“yes” | buys_computer=“yes)= 6/9 =0.667
P(student=“yes” | buys_computer=“no”)= 1/5=0.2
P(credit_rating=“fair” | buys_computer=“yes”)=6/9=0.667
P(credit_rating=“fair” | buys_computer=“no”)=2/5=0.4

X=(age<=30 ,income =medium, student=yes,credit_rating=fair)

P(X|Ci) : P(X|buys_computer=“yes”)= 0.222 x 0.444 x 0.667 x 0.0.667 =0.044


P(X|buys_computer=“no”)= 0.6 x 0.4 x 0.2 x 0.4 =0.019
P(X|Ci)*P(Ci ) : P(X|buys_computer=“yes”) * P(buys_computer=“yes”)=0.028
P(X|buys_computer=“yes”) * P(buys_computer=“yes”)=0.007

X belongs to class “buys_computer=yes”

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35


Naïve Bayesian Classifier: Comments

 Advantages :
 Easy to implement

 Good results obtained in most of the cases

 Disadvantages
 Assumption: class conditional independence , therefore loss of

accuracy
 Practically, dependencies exist among variables

 E.g., hospitals: patients: Profile: age, family history etc

Symptoms: fever, cough etc., Disease: lung cancer, diabetes etc


 Dependencies among these cannot be modeled by Naïve Bayesian

Classifier
 How to deal with these dependencies?
 Bayesian Belief Networks

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36


Bayesian Networks

 Bayesian belief network allows a subset of the variables


conditionally independent
 A graphical model of causal relationships
 Represents dependency among the variables

 Gives a specification of joint probability distribution

Nodes: random variables


Links: dependency
X Y X,Y are the parents of Z, and Y is the
parent of P
No dependency between Z and P
Z
P Has no loops or cycles

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37


Bayesian Belief Network: An Example

Family
Smoker
History
(FH, S) (FH, ~S) (~FH, S) (~FH, ~S)

LC 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.1


LungCancer Emphysema ~LC 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.9

The conditional probability table


for the variable LungCancer:
PositiveXRay Dyspnea Shows the conditional probability
for each possible combination of its
parents n
Bayesian Belief Networks P ( z1,..., zn)   P ( z i | Parents ( Z i ))
i 1

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38


Learning Bayesian Networks

 Several cases
 Given both the network structure and all variables

observable: learn only the CPTs


 Network structure known, some hidden variables:

method of gradient descent, analogous to neural


network learning
 Network structure unknown, all variables observable:

search through the model space to reconstruct graph


topology
 Unknown structure, all hidden variables: no good

algorithms known for this purpose


 D. Heckerman, Bayesian networks for data mining
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39
Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40
Classification

 Classification:
 predicts categorical class labels

 Typical Applications
 {credit history, salary}-> credit approval ( Yes/No)

 {Temp, Humidity} --> Rain (Yes/No)

x  X  {0,1} , y  Y  {0,1}
n

Mathematically h: X Y
y  h( x )
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41
Linear Classification
 Binary Classification
problem
 The data above the red
line belongs to class ‘x’
x  The data below red line
x x
x x belongs to class ‘o’
x  Examples – SVM,
x x x o
Perceptron, Probabilistic
o
x o Classifiers
o o o
o o o
o o o o

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42


Discriminative Classifiers

 Advantages
 prediction accuracy is generally high

 (as compared to Bayesian methods – in general)


 robust, works when training examples contain errors
 fast evaluation of the learned target function
 (Bayesian networks are normally slow)
 Criticism
 long training time

 difficult to understand the learned function (weights)

 (Bayesian networks can be used easily for pattern discovery)


 not easy to incorporate domain knowledge
 (easy in the form of priors on the data or distributions)

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43


Neural Networks

 Analogy to Biological Systems (Indeed a great example


of a good learning system)
 Massive Parallelism allowing for computational
efficiency
 The first learning algorithm came in 1959 (Rosenblatt)
who suggested that if a target output value is provided
for a single neuron with fixed inputs, one can
incrementally change weights to learn to produce these
outputs using the perceptron learning rule

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44


A Neuron

- k
x0 w0
x1 w1
 f
output y
xn wn

Input weight weighted Activation


vector x vector w sum function
 The n-dimensional input vector x is mapped into

variable y by means of the scalar product and a


nonlinear function mapping
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45
A Neuron

- k
x0 w0
x1 w1
 f
output y
xn wn

Input weight weighted Activation


vector x vector w sum function
For Example
n
y  sign( wi xi   k )
i 0
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46
Multi-Layer Perceptron

Output vector
Err j  O j (1  O j ) Errk w jk
Output nodes k

 j   j  (l) Err j
wij  wij  (l ) Err j Oi
Hidden nodes Err j  O j (1  O j )(T j  O j )
wij 1
Oj  I j
1 e
Input nodes
I j   wij Oi   j
i

Input vector: xi
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Network Training

 The ultimate objective of training


 obtain a set of weights that makes almost all the

tuples in the training data classified correctly


 Steps
 Initialize weights with random values

 Feed the input tuples into the network one by one

 For each unit

 Compute the net input to the unit as a linear combination


of all the inputs to the unit
 Compute the output value using the activation function
 Compute the error
 Update the weights and the bias
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques
Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50
SVM – Support Vector Machines

Small Margin Large Margin


Support Vectors

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques


SVM – Cont.

 Linear Support Vector Machine

Given a set of points xi   with labeln


y i  {1,1}
The SVM finds a hyperplane defined by the pair (w,b)
(where w is the normal to the plane and b is the distance from the
origin)
s.t.
yi ( xi  w  b)  1 i  1,..., N
x – feature vector, b- bias, y- class label, ||w|| - margin

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52


SVM – Cont.

 What if the data is not linearly separable?


 Project the data to high dimensional space where it is
linearly separable and then we can use linear SVM –
(Using Kernels)

(0,1) +

+ - +
-1 0 +1 - +
(0,0) (1,0)
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 53
Non-Linear SVM

Classification using SVM (w,b)


?
xi  w  b  0
In non linear case we can see this as
?
K ( xi , w)  b  0
Kernel – Can be thought of as doing dot product
in some high dimensional space

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 54


Example of Non-linear SVM

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 55


Results

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 56


SVM vs. Neural Network

 SVM  Neural Network


 Relatively new concept  Quiet Old

 Nice Generalization  Generalizes well but

properties doesn’t have strong


 Hard to learn – learned mathematical foundation
in batch mode using  Can easily be learned in

quadratic programming incremental fashion


techniques  To learn complex

 Using kernels can learn functions – use


very complex functions multilayer perceptron
(not that trivial)

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 57


SVM Related Links

 http://svm.dcs.rhbnc.ac.uk/
 http://www.kernel-machines.org/
 C. J. C. Burges.
A Tutorial on Support Vector Machines for Pattern Recognition
. Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, 2(2), 1998.
 SVMlight – Software (in C) http://ais.gmd.de/~thorsten/svm
_light
 BOOK: An Introduction to Support Vector Machines
N. Cristianini and J. Shawe-Taylor
Cambridge University Press

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 58


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 59
Association-Based Classification

 Several methods for association-based classification


 ARCS: Quantitative association mining and clustering

of association rules (Lent et al’97)


 It beats C4.5 in (mainly) scalability and also accuracy
 Associative classification: (Liu et al’98)
 It mines high support and high confidence rules in the form of
“cond_set => y”, where y is a class label
 CAEP (Classification by aggregating emerging patterns)
(Dong et al’99)
 Emerging patterns (EPs): the itemsets whose support
increases significantly from one class to another
 Mine Eps based on minimum support and growth rate

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 60


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 61
Other Classification Methods
 k-nearest neighbor classifier
 case-based reasoning
 Genetic algorithm
 Rough set approach
 Fuzzy set approaches

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 62


Instance-Based Methods
 Instance-based learning:
 Store training examples and delay the processing

(“lazy evaluation”) until a new instance must be


classified
 Typical approaches
 k-nearest neighbor approach

 Instances represented as points in a Euclidean

space.
 Locally weighted regression

 Constructs local approximation

 Case-based reasoning

 Uses symbolic representations and knowledge-

based inference
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 63
The k-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm
 All instances correspond to points in the n-D space.
 The nearest neighbor are defined in terms of
Euclidean distance.
 The target function could be discrete- or real- valued.
 For discrete-valued, the k-NN returns the most
common value among the k training examples nearest
to xq.
 Vonoroi diagram: the decision surface induced by 1-
NN for a typical set of training examples.
_
_
_ _ .
+
_ .
+
xq + . . .
October 14, 2020
_ + .
Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 64
Discussion on the k-NN Algorithm
 The k-NN algorithm for continuous-valued target functions
 Calculate the mean values of the k nearest neighbors

 Distance-weighted nearest neighbor algorithm


 Weight the contribution of each of the k neighbors

according to their distance to the query point xq


giving greater weight to closer neighbors w 
 1
d ( x , x ) 2
 Similarly, for real-valued target functions q i
 Robust to noisy data by averaging k-nearest neighbors
 Curse of dimensionality: distance between neighbors could
be dominated by irrelevant attributes.
 To overcome it, axes stretch or elimination of the least

relevant attributes.
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 65
Case-Based Reasoning

 Also uses: lazy evaluation + analyze similar instances


 Difference: Instances are not “points in a Euclidean space”
 Example: Water faucet problem in CADET (Sycara et al’92)
 Methodology
 Instances represented by rich symbolic descriptions

(e.g., function graphs)


 Multiple retrieved cases may be combined

 Tight coupling between case retrieval, knowledge-based

reasoning, and problem solving


 Research issues
 Indexing based on syntactic similarity measure, and

when failure, backtracking, and adapting to additional


cases
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 66
Remarks on Lazy vs. Eager Learning
 Instance-based learning: lazy evaluation
 Decision-tree and Bayesian classification: eager evaluation
 Key differences
 Lazy method may consider query instance xq when deciding how to

generalize beyond the training data D


 Eager method cannot since they have already chosen global

approximation when seeing the query


 Efficiency: Lazy - less time training but more time predicting
 Accuracy
 Lazy method effectively uses a richer hypothesis space since it uses

many local linear functions to form its implicit global approximation


to the target function
 Eager: must commit to a single hypothesis that covers the entire

instance space
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 67
Genetic Algorithms
 GA: based on an analogy to biological evolution
 Each rule is represented by a string of bits
 An initial population is created consisting of randomly
generated rules
 e.g., IF A and Not A then C can be encoded as 100
1 2 2

 Based on the notion of survival of the fittest, a new


population is formed to consists of the fittest rules and
their offsprings
 The fitness of a rule is represented by its classification
accuracy on a set of training examples
 Offsprings are generated by crossover and mutation

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 68


Rough Set Approach
 Rough sets are used to approximately or “roughly”
define equivalent classes
 A rough set for a given class C is approximated by two
sets: a lower approximation (certain to be in C) and an
upper approximation (cannot be described as not
belonging to C)
 Finding the minimal subsets (reducts) of attributes (for
feature reduction) is NP-hard but a discernibility matrix
is used to reduce the computation intensity

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 69


Fuzzy Set
Approaches

 Fuzzy logic uses truth values between 0.0 and 1.0 to


represent the degree of membership (such as using fuzzy
membership graph)
 Attribute values are converted to fuzzy values
 e.g., income is mapped into the discrete categories

{low, medium, high} with fuzzy values calculated


 For a given new sample, more than one fuzzy value may
apply
 Each applicable rule contributes a vote for membership in
the categories
 Typically, the truth values for each predicted category are
summed
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 70
Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 71
What Is Prediction?

 Prediction is similar to classification


 First, construct a model
 Second, use model to predict unknown value
 Major method for prediction is regression
 Linear and multiple regression
 Non-linear regression
 Prediction is different from classification
 Classification refers to predict categorical class label
 Prediction models continuous-valued functions

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 72


Predictive Modeling in Databases

 Predictive modeling: Predict data values or construct


generalized linear models based on the database data.
 One can only predict value ranges or category distributions
 Method outline:
 Minimal generalization
 Attribute relevance analysis
 Generalized linear model construction
 Prediction
 Determine the major factors which influence the prediction
 Data relevance analysis: uncertainty measurement,

entropy analysis, expert judgement, etc.


 Multi-level prediction: drill-down and roll-up analysis
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 73
Regress Analysis and Log-Linear
Models in Prediction
 Linear regression: Y =  +  X
 Two parameters ,  and  specify the line and are to

be estimated by using the data at hand.


 using the least squares criterion to the known values of

Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….


 Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
 Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the

above.
 Log-linear models:
 The multi-way table of joint probabilities is

approximated by a product of lower-order tables.



Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 74
Locally Weighted Regression

 Construct an explicit approximation to f over a local region


surrounding query instance xq.
 Locally weighted linear regression:
 The target function f is approximated near xq using the

linear function: f ( x)  w  w a ( x) wnan ( x)


0 11
 minimize the squared error: distance-decreasing weight K

E ( xq )  1  ( f ( x)  f ( x))2 K (d ( xq , x))
2 xk _nearest _neighbors_of _ x
 the gradient descent training rule: q

 w  
In most cases,
j  K (d (
the target function is approximated by axq , x ))(( f ( x )   ( x))a ( x)
f j
x k _ nearest _ neighbors_ of _ xq
constant, linear, or quadratic function.

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 75


Prediction: Numerical Data

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 76


Prediction: Categorical Data

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 77


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 78
Classification Accuracy: Estimating Error
Rates
 Partition: Training-and-testing
 use two independent data sets, e.g., training set
(2/3), test set(1/3)
 used for data set with large number of samples
 Cross-validation
 divide the data set into k subsamples
 use k-1 subsamples as training data and one sub-
sample as test data—k-fold cross-validation
 for data set with moderate size
 Bootstrapping (leave-one-out)
 for small size data
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 79
Bagging and Boosting
 General idea
Training data
Classification method (CM)

Classifier C
Altered Training data CM

Classifier C1
Altered Training data CM

…….. Classifier C2
Aggregation ….
Classifier C*

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 80


Bagging

 Given a set S of s samples


 Generate a bootstrap sample T from S. Cases in S may not
appear in T or may appear more than once.
 Repeat this sampling procedure, getting a sequence of k
independent training sets
 A corresponding sequence of classifiers C1,C2,…,Ck is
constructed for each of these training sets, by using the
same classification algorithm
 To classify an unknown sample X,let each classifier predict
or vote
 The Bagged Classifier C* counts the votes and assigns X to
the class with the “most” votes
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 81
Boosting Technique — Algorithm

 Assign every example an equal weight 1/N


 For t = 1, 2, …, T Do
 Obtain a hypothesis (classifier) h (t) under w(t)

 Calculate the error of h(t) and re-weight the examples

based on the error . Each classifier is dependent on the


previous ones. Samples that are incorrectly predicted
are weighted more heavily
 Normalize w(t+1) to sum to 1 (weights assigned to

different classifiers sum to 1)


 Output a weighted sum of all the hypothesis, with each
hypothesis weighted according to its accuracy on the
training set

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 82


Bagging and Boosting
 Experiments with a new boosting algorithm,
freund et al (AdaBoost )
 Bagging Predictors, Brieman
 Boosting Naïve Bayesian Learning on large subset
of MEDLINE, W. Wilbur

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 83


Chapter 7. Classification and Prediction

 What is classification? What is prediction?


 Issues regarding classification and prediction
 Classification by decision tree induction
 Bayesian Classification
 Classification by Neural Networks
 Classification by Support Vector Machines (SVM)
 Classification based on concepts from association rule
mining
 Other Classification Methods
 Prediction
 Classification accuracy
 Summary
October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 84
Summary

 Classification is an extensively studied problem (mainly in


statistics, machine learning & neural networks)
 Classification is probably one of the most widely used
data mining techniques with a lot of extensions
 Scalability is still an important issue for database
applications: thus combining classification with database
techniques should be a promising topic
 Research directions: classification of non-relational data,
e.g., text, spatial, multimedia, etc..

October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 85


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Wadsworth International Group, 1984.
 C. J. C. Burges. A Tutorial on Support Vector Machines for Pattern Recognition. Data Mining
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www.cs.uiuc.edu/~hanj

Thank you !!!


October 14, 2020 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 89

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