CHAPTER -II

Conducting Materials

o Conductors:

 Materials which allow current to pass through them easily are

called conducting materials. Ex. copper, aluminum etc.
 materials that allow electrons to flow atom to atom of that
material with drift velocity in the conduction band against a
small resistance offered by that substance are called
conductors.
 Electrical Conductor may be metals, metal alloy, electrolyte or
some non- metals like graphiteECEg3133
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and conductive polymer. 1
 CONT..
 However, it must be understood that not all conductive materials
have the same level of conductivity.
 Electrical conductivity is analogous to the transparency of certain
materials to light: materials that easily “conduct” light are called
“transparent,” while those that don’t are called “opaque.”
 However, not all transparent materials are equally conductive
to light. Window glass is better than most plastics.
 So it is with electrical conductors, some being better than
others. For instance, silver (Ag) is the best conductor in the
“conductors” list (Highest to lowest: AgCuAuAl) ,
offering easier passage for electrons than any other material
cited.
 Dirty water and concrete are also listed as conductors, but these
materials
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 CONT..
 It should also be understood that some materials experience
changes in their electrical properties under different
conditions.
 Glass, for instance, is a very good insulator at room
temperature, but becomes a conductor when heated to a
very high temperature.
 Gases such as air, are normally insulating materials, but
become conductive if heated to very high temperatures.
 Most metals become poorer conductors when heated, and
better conductors when cooled.
 Many conductive materials become perfectly conductive at
extremely low temperatures.
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 CONT..
 This is called super conductivity,property of zero electrical
resistance in some substances at very low absolute
temperatures. And materials that conduct electricity with no
resistance are known as superconductors.
 While the normal motion of “free” electrons in a conductor
is random, with no particular direction or speed, electrons
can be influenced to move in a coordinated fashion through
a conductive material.
 This uniform motion of electrons is what we call electricity,
or electric current.
 that electrons can flow only if there exists a continuous path
of conductive material providing a conduit for electrons to
travel through.
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 Resistance and Resistivity of a Material

• Resistance: of a material is the opposition of the material

for flow of current while Resistivity is the resistance of a
material of unit length and unit cross sectional area.
 The electrical resistance is an extrinsic property that
measures how the material is difficult to pass of an electric
current through it.
 resistivity is an intrinsic property that quantifies how
strongly a given material opposes the flow of electric
current.
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 CONT..
•   Resistance(R) of a material depends on the given length

(m) and cross sectional area (m2) of the material and its
resistivity (ρ) is directly proportional to the overall
resistance.
 R= & ρ= where the unit of R and ρ are Ω and Ω-m
respectively.

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 Conductance and Conductivity of a
material

 The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of

the difficulty to pass an electric current through that conductor.
 The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is the ease with
which an electric current passes. i.e. Conductance is the reciprocal
of the resistance, and is measured in Siemens(S) or mhos.
 The inverse quantity is electrical conductivity, and measures a
material's ability to conduct an electric current.
 It is commonly represented by the Greek letter κ (kappa)
especially in electrical engineering. Its SI unit is Siemens per
meter (S/m).
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 CONT..
 Conductance,
1 1 A k*A 1
G    where, k 
R  *l  *l l 
A

1
i.e k   condactivity  specific conductance of the material


• Factors affecting resistance of electrical conductors

 Temperature: If the temperature of a wire increases so
does its resistance.

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Fig.Temperature Vs Resistance
ECEg3133 8
 CONT..

•   The resistance versus temperature graph is practically a
straight line, with in ordinary limits of temperature, say 0 0C
to 1000C.
 If a conductor has a resistance of R o at 10C, then at 10C it
will increase by a small amount x.
 The fraction x is called the temperature coefficient of the
material and is represented by the symbol α o. αo is the
fraction of resistance at 00C by which the resistance
increases for 10C rise in temperature.
i.e. αo = => x=αo* Ro
 Hence increase in resistance for t0C rise of temperature =
x*t = αo* Ro*t
 Resistance
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of the material ECEg3133
at temperature t will be: 9
 CONT..
• Rt= Ro + αo* Ro*t = Ro (1+ αo*t)…………………..(1)
• Where
Rt = Resistance of the conductor at t0C
R0 = resistance of the conductor at 00C
αo = Temperature coefficient of resistance at 00C
t = rise in temperature by t0C
 Now if the resistance of the same material at any other
temperature T0C be RT, Then according to equation (1)
RT = Ro(1+ αo*T).................. (2)
• Dividing expression (2) by expression (1), we get
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 CONT..
o Dividing expression (2) by expression (1), we get
RT R (1  T *  o ) (1  T *  o )
 o  , adding and subtracting t *  o from the numerator , we get
Rt Ro (1  t *  o ) (1  t *  o )
RT (1  t *  o  T *  o  t *  o ) 1  t *  o T * o  t * o  (T  t )
   1  o
Rt 1  t * o 1  t * o 1  t * o 1  t * o
o
 RT  Rt (1   t (T  t )) ................(3), where  t 
1  t * o

 This means that the resistance at any temperature T0C can

be calculated if the resistance of the material at temperature
t0C is known.

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 CONT..
 It is not only resistance but also specific resistance or
resistivity of a metallic conductor which increases with the
rise in temperature and vice versa. The relation b/n and
within normal ranges of temperature is given by

t  o (1   o * t )
Where:

t  Re sistivity at t o C
 o  Re sistivity at 0o C

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 CONT..
 Alloying:is a solid solution of two or more metals. The
atomic structure of a solid solution is irregular as compared
to pure metals.
 Due to which the electrical resistivity of the solid solution
increases more rapidly with increase of alloy content.
 Mechanical stressing:Mechanical stressing of the crystal
structure of material develops the localized strains in the
material crystal structure.
 These localized stains disturb the movement of free
electrons through the material, which results in an increase
in resistivity of the material.
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 CONT..
 Pure metals increase in resistance with rise in temperature and
are said to have positive temperature coefficients of resistance
 Most alloys increase very slightly in resistance with rise in
temperature.
 The resistance of alloys used in electrical work has a
practically constant resistance at all temperatures.
 Carbon, Insulators and electrolytes decrease in resistance with
rise in temperature. ( An electrolyte is a solution which
conducts electricity e.g. Water containing sulphuric acid)
 The resistance of an insulator decreases considerably with rise
of temperature i.e. it becomes very much worse as an insulator.
Such materials are said posses negative temperature
coefficients
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Classification of Conducting materials and their Applications

• Classification of conducting materials

 Electrical conducting material is the basic requirement for
electrical engineering products. The electrical conducting
material can be classified as below-
I. Based on Resistivity or Conductivity
a. High resistivity ( Low conductivity) conducting
materials-Insulators
 High resistivity materials are generally alloys of different
materials. Some examples of them are Nichrome, Tungsten,
Platinum,
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Carbon, Manganin etc.
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 CONT..
 In addition to possessing a high value of resistivity high
resistance materials should also possess the following
additional properties.

Low resistivity temperature coefficient

High melting point
No tendency for oxidation

ductility
High mechanical strength
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 CONT..
 High resistivity materials are used in such applications where a large
value of resistance is required e.g. elements of heating devices, starter of
electrical motors, filaments of incandescent lamps, loading resistance,
rheostats, and resistance for precession measuring instruments.
 If low resistivity materials are used for such application, the length of the
wire would be too large which would increase to a large extent the overall
size of the equipment.
b. Low resistivity ( high conductivity) conducting materials-
Conductors &Semiconductors
 Low resistivity materials are mostly conductors and semi
conductors.
Copper and aluminum are examples of commercially accepted low
resistivity materials.
 Silver has low resistivity than copper but due to high cost it is not
used as conducting material. ECEg3133
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 CONT..

Low resistance temperature coefficient

Sufficient mechanical strength
Ductility

Solderability
Resistance to corrosion.
 Low resistivity materials are used in such applications
where the power loss and voltage drop should be low. They
are used:
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 CONT..
In house wiring
As conductor for power transmission and distribution
In the windings of motors, generators, and transformers.
In all such application where the power loss and voltage drop should be
low.
C. Zero resistivity(highest conductivity)conducting materials-
Super Conductors
 A state of material in which it has zero resistivity is called
superconductivity.
 Resistivity of some metals (Superconductors such as Aluminum,
Zinc, Income, Mercury etc…) and chemical compounds become
zero when their temperature is brought near 0 0k (-2730C).
 At this temperature such metals or chemical compounds are said to
have attained superconductivity.
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 CONT..
 These materials are used in energy saving in power
systems, super conducting magnets, memory storage
elements, etc.
• II.Based on area of application
Materials used as conductor for coils of electrical machines
Materials for lamp filaments
Material used for transmission line
Materials used for fuses etc…
• Application of conducting materials
 Application of Superconducting Materials

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 CONT..
• Power cable: A 220KV cable with superconducting material
will enable transmission of power over very long distances
using a diameter of few centimeters with out any significant
power loss or drop in voltage.
• Electrical Machines: by using superconducting materials it
is possible to manufacture electrical generators and
transformers in exceptionally small sized having efficiency
of 99.99%.
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 CONT..
• Electromagnet: super-conducting solenoids have been made which
do not produce any heat during operation.
 However super-conductivity can be destroyed if the magnetic
field exceeds an initial value.
• Low Resistivity Materials and their Application
• Copper:
 It is most widely used metal because of its high conductivity
and low cost.
 Copper is available in two forms. Annealed copper and hard
drawn copper for use as conducting material.
 The annealed and hard drawn copper are both chemically
same but have different mechanical strengths due to the
different
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heat treatment processes
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 CONT..
 Annealed copper is used at places where flexibility is required.
Example: Wiring of buildings, winding wires of electrical
machines and transformers.
 Important properties of copper

Reddish in color
It is non-magnetic
Highly resistant to corrosion
It can easily be soldered and welded which is necessary in
electrical wiring.
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contact resistance ECEg3133 23
 CONT..
• Uses of copper:
Making wires of cables for transmission and distribution of electric power
and for motor and generator windings.
Rolled copper bars are used for making bus bars.
• Aluminum:
 Important properties of Aluminum:
Its electrical conductivity is next to copper
It is soft and white colored metal
It offers high resistance to corrosion due to the oxide layer formed on
its surface when exposed to atmosphere.
It is much lighter than copper for the same volume
Because it is soft metal, there is always a possibility of loose contacts
It is difficult to solder aluminum wires
It has high contact resistance. ECEg3133
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 CONT..
• Uses of Aluminum:
It is used in overhead transmission lines, domestic wiring,
flexible wires, bus-bars, rotor bars of squirrel cage induction
motor.
Due to its less weight aluminum wound machines have less
weight, but they are not commercially successful.
 It is due to its lower tensile strength.
 In overhead transmission lines it is used in the form of
A.C.S.R conductors (Aluminum conductor steel reinforced).

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 CONT..
• Silver:
 It is the best conductor of heat and electricity.
 Its use is limited due to its high cost and is only used for
special purpose such as in contact surface of switchgear, as
fusing element in HRC fuses and for conducting wired in
costly instruments.
• High Resistivity Materials and Their Applications
 Alloys of Nickel, chromium, copper, iron, Manganese are
extensively used as resistance materials.
 A resistor is a device which is used to introduce resistance
in an electric circuit for the various purposes such as:
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 CONT..
For controlling of current such as rheostats.
As heater elements for converting electrical energy into heat energy.
As meter elements such as ammeter shunts and voltmeter multipliers.
• Tungsten:
 Important Properties of tungsten:
It has the highest melting point 3300 0C among all the metals
It is grey in color and is one of the standard resistance
materials.
It can be drawn into very thin wires for making filaments.
It does not exhibit magnetic properties when pure but can
easily alloy with steel called "tungsten Steel" which is
magnetic material of top quality.
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 CONT..
• Uses of tungsten:
It is used in candescent lamps as filaments due to its
high melting point.
In the form of an alloy of tungsten steel it is used for
making permanent magnets.
• Platinum:
• Properties of platinum:

It is even more costly than gold

It is grayish white metal

It is rust proof
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 CONT..
• Uses of platinum:
It is used as heating elements in laboratory ovens and
furnaces.
Platinum-rhodium thermocouples are used for
measurement of temperature up to 16000C.
• Mercury:
• Properties of mercury:
It is heavy silver white metal
It is the only metal which is liquid at room temperature
It is poisonous
Its expansion and contraction is uniform over wide range of
temperature
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 CONT..
• Uses of mercury:

It is used in mercury Vapor lamps with a high luminous

efficiency of about 40 lumes per watt.
For this reason such lamps are used in street lighting.
It is used in the manufacture of thermometers for its
excellent property of equal expansion and contraction for
equal changes of temperature.

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 Thermal conductivity of conductors
Basics of thermal conductivity

 Electrical conductivity, a measure of a material's ability to

conduct an electric current while thermal conductivity is the
materials ability to conduct heat.
 Materials with high thermal conductivity are called
“conductors” and those with low conductivity are called
“insulators”.
 Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate across materials of low
thermal conductivity than across materials of high thermal
conductivity.
 It better to note that good electrical conductors are also good
thermal
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 CONT..
 Heat flows between two points when ever temperature
gradient, rate of change of temperature with respect to
distance, exists (it flows from a hotter to a colder area) and
is measured in units called Joules symbol J.
 The speed at which the heat flows will be the number of
joules that pass from the hot area to the cold area in one
second.
 Heat has traveled through the metal rod by a process known
as conduction. The process can be in two ways, due to free
electrons or vibration of atoms.

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 CONT..
 Metals contain free electrons in their structure.
 Thermal conductivity of metals is like their electrical
conductivity, is determined by largely by the free electrons.
 This is why in metals the process is usually rapid, whereas
in non-metals it is slow.
 When a metal is heated at one of its ends, the free electrons
begin to move faster, i.e. their kinetic energy increases.
 The hot electrons drift towards the colder parts of the metal
taking with them the energy they have picked up.
 At the same time the slower moving, cooler, electrons drift
towards the heated end, pick up energy and in turn move
towards the colder parts.
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 CONT..
 This movement of the electrons thus mixes and passes energy
through the metal rod.
 Energy is also transmitted through the metal rod by vibration of the
atoms/molecules themselves.
 The atoms/molecules at the hot end pick up energy and vibrate more
rapidly.
 Under these conditions they collide with the colder atoms/molecules
adjacent to them and in turn cause them to vibrate at a new, faster
rate. In this way heat energy is transferred along the metal rod.
 Movement of free electrons, which have acquired more energy.
Heated layers of molecules colliding with other colder molecules
adjacent to them.
 Non-metals do not have free electrons in their structure, and only
this process is available for heatECEg3133
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 CONT..
 Note that thermal conduction is the transfer of heat from one
part of a body to another with which it is in contact.
 But thermal conductivity is the number of heat units (J)
flowing per unit of time (1sec) through a cross-sectional area
(1m2) when the temperature falls by one degree (1oK or 1oC)
per unit length (1m) of its path.
 The units of thermal conductivity are, therefore, joules per
second per meter squared (area) per meter (thickness) per
degree Celsius, or Kelvin
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 Conduction Equation

 The rate of heat transfer to an object is equal to the thermal

conductivity of the material the object is made from,
multiplied by the surface area in contact, multiplied by the
difference in temperature between the two objects, divided by
the thickness of the material.
• Mathematically:
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 CONT..
Q kAT kAT
 
t d d

• Where:
Φ or Q
t
rate of heat flow, amount of heat transferred per
second(w)
k -the thermal conductivity of the material
A-area over which heat is passing through(m2)
d- thickness or distance between hot face and cold face(m)
ΔT-Temperature difference(Thotter-Tcolder or T2-T1 in our case)

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