Metrology

Metrology : It is a science of measurement

Science………………..?

Measurement :
1) It is the act of obtaining quantitative information about a
physical object.
2) The set of experimental operations carried out to determine
value of quantity.
3) It is a comparison with ‘standard’ ( known, recognized &
universally accepted)

Standard : Some thing is set up and establish by an authority as a

rule for the measurement of quantity, weight ,extent, value
or quality etc.
 Scope of metrology
Metrology has very wide scope in every field as it is
necessary in every field.
A person who is expert in this field is called as Metrologist
Can serve industrial sector to solve problems such as;
1. Establishment ,reproduction ,conservation and transfer
of units of measurement and their standards.
2. Can develop methods of measurement ,various
techniques based on agreed units and standards.
3. Can determine errors of measurements and its
remedies.
4. Design, manufacturing and testing of all kind of
measuring instruments.
Standard:
Measurement system -------- known standard
Otherwise measurement has no meaning.
Industry, commerce , international trade
Modern civilization would not be possible.
Role of standard : To support the system to make uniform
measurement and helps to maintain interchangeability.

Length measurement :

Two standards :
1. Imperial Standard Yard
2. International Prototype Meter
 Imperial Standard Yard
It was introduced by England
It is made of 1“ cross –section bronze bar(82% copper,
13% tin ,5% zinc) 38“ long.
The bar has two ½ ” diameter Χ ½ “ deep holes.
Each hole is fitted with 1/10th“ diameter gold plug.
The top s/f of this plug lie on the neutral axis of the
bronze bar.
 The yard is defined as
“ the distance between two central transverse lines on
the plugs when the temperature of the bar is constant
at 62°F “
 International Prototype Meter
This standard was established originally by international
bureau of weights and measures in 1875.
---made of platinum –iridium alloy (90% platinum, 10%
Iridium) having a web cross-sections.
The upper s/f of the web is highly polished and has fine
lines engraved over it
 International Prototype Meter
The length of the meter is defined as the , straight line
distance at 0°c between the center portions of pure
platinum –iridium alloy ( 90% platinum , 10% iridium )
of 102cm total length and having a web cross section.
As Material ( Metal) standard,
Drawbacks
 Influenced by variation of environmental conditions
,pressure ,temp and ageing etc. thus it changes it’s
length.
 Required to store under careful conditions.
 Replicas are not available
 Not reproducible
 Considerable difficulty is experienced while verifying
sizes of gauges.
 Conversion factor was to be used for convert to metric
working
New standards were introduced,

Wavelength standard :- Meter is defined as

1 Meter = 1650763.73 wavelength of red–orange

radiations of krypton 86 isotope gas.
The above definition of meter is difficult to get every
time.

New meter defn based on speed of Light.

The length of path travelled by light ray in vaccum in
1/299792458 sec.
 Advantages of Light standard

 not influenced by variation in environment condition ,

pressure, temperature, humidity and ageing.
 It is not to be preserved under security & thus there is
no fear of being destroyed .
 It is not subjected to wear & tear .
 It gives unit of length which can produced consistently in
all circumstances in all time at all places. In otherworld it
is easily reproducible and identical standard available
with all them.
 These standard available in laboratories and industries
 No problem in transferring into other standard.
 Can be used for comparative of very high accuracy &
uncertainty is in other of 3 parts Χ 1011
Two material standards are not used for general purpose
work. There is hierarchy of standard.

Primary Standard:
for precise definition of unit there should be one
& only one material standard, preserved in most careful
condition is called primary standard.
International prototype meter, imperial standard yard .
These are used at only rate intervals (say after 10 to 20
years) these are used solely for comparison with
secondary standard. Another new source of primary
standard is iodine stabilized He-Ne laser. ( uncertainty of

1 in 109 )
Secondary standard :
These are made as possible as exactly similar to primary std. as
material, length & design. They are compared with primary after long
interval and deviation are noted.(nearly 5-7 years) This std. are kept at
number of places for safe custody . These are used for occasional
comparison with tertiary std. whenever required .\

e.g. spectral & stabilizer laser.

Tertiary standard:
Primary & secondary standards are applicable as an ultimate control.
These are the 1st standard used for reference purpose in scientific
laboratory, institutions and workshops.These are made as true copy of
secondary standard . And used for comparison at interval with working
standard gauge block.
Working standard :
used more frequently in laboratories &
workshops. They are usually made of low material
grade as compared to primary , secondary & tertiary
for sake of economy. They are derived from
fundamental standard.
e.g. laboratory standard, gauge block, transducer.

Material standard known as line standard

But for accuracy & preciseness in measurement –end
standard
Comparison between Line standard & End standard
CHARACTERISTICS LINE STANDARD END STANDARD

Definition Distance Between two Distance Between two

parallel lines parallel & flat surfaces

Accuracy Limited upto 0.2mm Highly accurate for close

tolerances upto ±
0.001mm

Time Quick & easy to use for Time consuming & prove
wide range only one dimension at a
time

Wear & tear Scale marking are Significant wear may

subjected to wear occurs at ends leads to
undersize
Comparison between Line standard & End standard
CHARACTERISTICS LINE STANDARD END STANDARD

Alignment Can not be easily aligned Easily aligned

with axis of measurement

Manufacturing cost Low cost , High cost,

Simple to manufacturing Manufacturing process
complex

Parallax effect Subjected to parallax Not subjected to parallax

effect effect

e.g. Meter ,yard Vernier caliper,

micrometer, slip gauges
etc.
 Error = true value – measured value
Classification of errors :

A) Static errors:
These errors results from the physical
nature of the various components of measuring
system.

a)Reading errors
b)Characteristics errors
c)Environmental errors
a) Reading errors : includes
i) Misreading of scale
ii) Parallax errors: line of vision is not perpendicular to
the measuring scale.
 Reading error
Parallax error : occurs if line of vision is not perpendicular to the
measuring scale
Elimination : Provide mirror
 Interpolation error
If pointer or a matching line of a measuring instrument
does not coincide with a division mark on the provided
scale.
Elimination:Then rounding up can be done as
per personal decision.
 Characteristic error
Defined as the deviation of the output of the measuring
system form theoretical predicted performance or from
nominal performance specifications
Linearity error, repeatability, hysteresis, resolution error
Calibration error.
Loading errors:
results from the change in measured itself
when it is being measured.
Instrument loading error : is the difference between the
value of the measurand before and after the measuring
system is connected or contacted for measurement.
 Environmental error

These errors results from the effect of surrounding such as

temperature ,pressure ,humidity etc. on measuring system.
The ambient temperature at different places in our country is
different which results in contraction or expansion of
component or instrument gives errors output.
Hence, it is suggested to carry out the measurement at
standard temp.20 °C
External influences like magnetic or electric fields ,nuclear
radiations, vibrations or shocks etc. also leads to
environmental errors.
 Dynamic errors
Dynamic error is the error caused by time variations in
the measurand. It results from inability of the system
to respond faithfully to a time varying measurement.

It is caused by inertia ,damping, friction or other physical

constraints in the sensing or readout or display system.

Classified as
a) Systematic or controllable errors
b) Random errors.
 Systematic or controllable errors
Systematic errors are regularly repetitive in nature.
They are constant and similar form.
Results from improper conditions or procedures that are
consistent in action.
Systematic errors includes:
1)Calibration error : these are caused due to the variation
in the calibrated scale from its nominal value.
2) Ambient or atmospheric conditions( environmental
errors)
3)Stylus pressure: devices which have stylus type sensing
elements are mostly on spring pressure may apply
force on stylus which in turn applies on component.
Stylus Pressure
Avoidable errors: these errors may occur due to parallax
,non alignment of workpiece, improper location of
measuring instruments, dirt or dust,
Poor contact.-

Alignment error ( cosine error):

If instrument sensing or measuring element is not
aligned = error
Abbe’s alignment principle: “The axis or line of
measurment should coincide with the axis of
measuring instrument or line of the measuring scale.”
 Sine -cosine error
The combined sine cosine error occurs, if micrometer anvil
axis is not truly perpendicular to the axis of the workpiece.
referring fig.
L=true dimension of
component
M= apparent length
d= diameter of anvil
then

L = Mcosθ – dsinθ , error = M – L,

Error =M – (Mcosθ – dsinθ )