Electrical Measurement

Measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters

into meaningful numbers. The measurement of a given quantity is the result
of comparison between the quantity to be measured, and a definite
standard. The instruments which are used for such measurements are
called measuring instruments.
The necessary requirements for any measuring instruments are:
1)      With the introduction of the instrument in the circuit, the circuit, the
circuit conditions should not be altered. Thus, the quantity to be measured
should not get affected due to the instrument used.
2)      The power consumed by the instruments for their operation should be
as small as possible.
Some important terms in ‘measurement’ are;
Instrument:
A device for finding the value, or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Accuracy:
• It is the nearness of the measured value towards the true value. ie, the measure of conformity to the
true value.
• Precision:
It refers to the degree of agreement within a group of measurements or instruments. i.e. The
measure of repeatability or reproducibility. Precision has two characteristics: conformity and the no.
of significant figures to which measurements may be made.
Resolution:
It is defined as the smallest change in input that can be detected by an instrument.
Sensitivity:
It is the ratio of output signal to a change of input.
                                            Or
It is the ratio of response of an instrument to a change in a measured variable.
True value:
•   It is the average of the infinite no. of measurements when the
average deviation tends to become zero.
Error:
•   An error is the deviation from the true value of the measured
variable. In order to understand the concept of errors in
measurement, we should know the two terms that defines the error
and these two terms are written below:
True Value:
• It is not possible to determine the true of quantity by experiment
means. True value may be defined as the average value of an infinite
number of measured values when average deviation due to various
contributing factor will approach to zero.
Measured Value:
• It may be defined as the approximated value of true value. It can be found out by taking
means of several measured readings during an experiment, by applying suitable
approximations on physical conditions.
Now we are in a position to define static error.
Static error is defined as the difference of the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. Mathematically we can write an expression of error as, dA = Am - At where dA is
the static error Am is measured value and At is true value.
• It may be noted that the absolute value of error cannot be determined as due to the
fact that the true value of quantity cannot be determined accurately.
Let us consider few terms related to errors.
Limiting Errors or Guarantee Errors:
• The concept of guarantee errors can better clear if we study this kind of error by
considering one example. Suppose there is a manufacturer who manufacture an
ammeter, now he should promises that the error in the ammeter he is selling not greater
the limit he sets. This limit of error is known as limiting errors or guarantee error
Types of Errors:
• Basically there are three types of errors on the basis; they may arise from
the source.
Gross Errors:
• This category of errors includes all the human mistakes while reading,
recording and the readings. Mistakes in calculating the errors also come
under this category. For example while taking the reading from the meter
of the instrument he may read 21 as 31. All these types of error are come
under this category. Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable
measures and they are written below:
• (i) A proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also
calculation of error should be done accurately.
• (ii) By increasing the number of experimenters we can reduce the gross
errors. If each experimenter takes different reading at different points,
then by taking average of more readings we can reduce the gross errors.
(i) Instrumental error:
• These errors may be due to wrong construction, calibration of the measuring
instruments. These types of error may be arises due to friction or may be due to
hysteresis. These types of errors also include the loading effect and misuse of the
instruments. Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to the adjust the zero of
instruments. In order to minimize the gross errors in measurement various correction
factors must be applied and in extreme condition instrument must be re-calibrated
carefully.
(ii) Environmental Errors:
• This type of error arises due to conditions external to the instrument. The external
condition includes temperature, pressure, humidity or it may include external
magnetic field. Following are the steps that one must follow in order to minimize the
environmental errors:
• (A)Try to maintain the temperature and humidity of the laboratory constant by
making some arrangements.
(B)Ensure that there should not be any external magnetic or electrostatic field around
the instrument.
Observational Errors:
• As the name suggests these types of errors are due to wrong observations.
The wrong observations may be due to PARALLAX. In order to minimize the
PARALLAX error highly accurate meters are required, provided with mirrored
scales.
Random Errors:
• After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there are still some errors
in measurement is left. These errors are known as random errors. Some of the
reasons of the appearance of these errors are known but still, some reasons
are unknown. Hence we cannot fully eliminate these kinds of error
Instruments- Basics:
The essential elements of an instrument are;
• A detector
• An intermediate transfer device
• An indicator, recorder or a storage device
•  The history of the development of instruments shows three phases of
instruments.
• a)Mechanical, b) Electrical,  and c) Electronic instruments
a)Mechanical instruments
•   These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But,
these instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy, and bulky and
hence have a large mass. Mass presents inertia problems and hence, these
instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes, which are involved in
dynamic measurements. Thus, the disadvantages of mechanical instruments
are:
• They are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions.
• Most of them are a potential source of noise and cause noise pollution.
b)Electrical instruments:
•    Electrical method of indicating the output of detectors is more rapid than
mechanical methods. But, electrical instruments depends on the mechanical
movement of an indicating device, having some inertia and thus have a limited
time response (0.5 – 24 s).
c)Electronic instruments:
•   These instruments are used for fast responses required for scientific and
industrial measurements. They are used for the detection of
electromagnetically produced signals such as radio, video, and micro waves,
space applications, and computers.     These instruments make use of
semiconductor devices. In electronic devices, the only movement involved is
that of electrons. Thus, the response time is extremely small on account of
very small inertia of electrons.
• eg: nano seconds- A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is capable of following
dynamic and transition changes of the ordnanoseconds(10-9s).
Advantage of electronic instruments:-
•  Can detect very weak signals. ( eg:- In the area of Bio Instrumentation, the
bio electric potentials are very weak, ie lower than 1 mV)
•  They can monitor inaccessible or dangerous locations.
•  They can be used to measure non-electrical quantities.
They have
•   higher sensitivity,
• Lower weight
• Lower power consumption
• Higher degree of reliability compared to electrical or mechanical
instruments 
Classification of Instruments:
Instruments can be broadly classified in to
1. Absolute instruments
2. Secondary instruments
• Absolute instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement
in terms of physical constants of the instruments.
e.g:- Tangent galvanometer, Rayleigh’s current balance.
• In secondary instruments, the quantity under measurement can only be
measured by observing the output of the instrument. The secondary
instruments should be calibrated by comparing with an absolute instrument or
another secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an
absolute instrument.
e.g:- Voltmeter, pressure gauge.
• The secondary instruments are  the commonly  used instruments compared to
the absolute instruments.
Electrical measuring instruments may be classified according to their functions as;
  (i)  Indicating instruments (ii)Integrating instruments (iii) Recording instruments
i) Indicating instruments:-
• These instruments directly indicate the value of the electrical quantity at the time
when it is being measured. In these instruments, a pointer moving over a graduated
scale directly gives the value of the electrical quantity being measured.
e.g:- Ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter.
ii) Integrating instruments
• The instruments which measure the total quantity of electricity (in Ampere hours )
or electrical energy (in Watt hours) in a given time are called integrating instruments.
In such instruments, there are a set of dials and pointers which register the total
quantity of electricity or electrical energy supplied to the load.
e.g:- Ampere- Hour meter, Watt-hour meter.
iii)Recording instruments
• Recording instruments give a continuous record of the variations of the
electrical quantity to be measured. A recording instrument is merely an
indicating instrument with a pen attached to its pointer. The pen rests lightly
on a chart wrapped over a drum moving with a slow uniform speed. The
motion of the drum is in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the
pointer. The path traced out by the pen indicates the manner in which the
quantity being measured, has varied during the time of the record.
e.g:- Recording voltmeters, Recording ammeters in supply stations.
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS:
• (1) Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instruments .
• (2) Moving iron instruments.
• (3) Electrodynamometer instruments.
• (4) Thermal instruments
• (5) Induction instruments.
• (6) Electrostatic type instruments.
• (7) Rectifier type instruments.
• The PMMC instruments can be used for direct measurement only, and
the induction type for alternating current measurements only.
•     The moving iron(MI) and moving coil(MC) types both depend for
their action upon the magnetic effect of current. The MI instruments
can be used for either direct or alternating current measurements,
and is the cheapest.
•    Electrodynamometer type of instruments can be used both on a.c
as well as on d.c. They are useful as “transfer instruments” , as their
calibration for both d.c and a.c is the same.