drTAV

Modul EKG

ECG
Irfan Ziad MD UCD
drkupe.blogspot.com
 What is ECG?
Electrocardiography-
is transthoracic interpretation of the
electrical activity of the heart over
time captured and externally recorded
by skin electrodes for diagnostic or
research purposes on human hearts.
 THE HISTORY OF ECG MACHINE

1903 NOW
Willem Einthoven Modern ECG machine
A Dutch doctor and physiologist. has evolved into compact electronic
He invented the first systems that often include
practical electrocardiogram and computerized interpretation of the
received the Nobel Prize in electrocardiogram.
Medicine in 1924 for it
ECG Machines!
The graph paper recording produced by the machine is termed an
electrocardiogram,
It is usually called ECG or EKG

STANDARD
CALLIBRATION
Speed = 25mm/s
Amplitude = 0.1mV/mm

1mV 10mm high

1 large square  0.2s(200ms)
1 small square 0.04s (40ms) or
1 mV amplitude
 HOW TO DO ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY

1. Place the patient in a supine or

semi-Fowler's position. If the
patient cannot tolerate being flat,
you can do the ECG in a more
upright position.
2. Instruct the patient to place their
arms down by their side and to
relax their shoulders.
3. Make sure the patient's legs are
uncrossed.
4. Remove any electrical devices, such
as cell phones, away from the Patient, supine position
patient as they may interfere with
the machine.
5. If you're getting artifact in the limb
leads, try having the patient sit on
top of their hands.
6. Causes of artifact: patient
movement, loose/defective
electrodes/apparatus, improper
grounding. An ECG with artifacts.
 Electrodes
Usually consist of a conducting gel, embedded
in the middle of a self-adhesive pad onto which
cables clip. Ten electrodes are used for a 12-
lead ECG.

Placement of electrodes
The limb electrodes
RA - On the right arm, avoiding thick muscle
LA – On the left arm this time.
RL - On the right leg, lateral calf muscle
LL- On the left leg this time.
The 6 chest electrodes
V1 - Fourth intercostal space, right sternal border.
V2 - Fourth intercostal space, left sternal border.
V3 - Midway between V2 and V4.
V4 - Fifth intercostal space, left midclavicular line.
V5 - Level with V4, left anterior axillary line.
V6 - Level with V4, left mid axillary line.
How does an ECG work?
The ECG works mostly by detecting and
amplifying the tiny electrical changes on the
skin that are caused when the heart muscle
"depolarizes" during each heart beat.
 a t ie nt
The p e
in g s u pin
Ly s ar o ng
n g
+ w ea r i
Place all the
electrodes
correctly
LEADS I, II, III
THEY ARE FORMED BY VOLTAGE
TRACINGS BETWEEN THE LIMB
ELECTRODES (RA, LA, RL AND
LL). THESE ARE THE ONLY
BIPOLAR LEADS. ALL TOGETHER
THEY ARE CALLED THE LIMB
LEADS OR
THE EINTHOVEN’S RA I LA
TRIANGLE

II III

RL LL
LEADS aVR, aVL, aVF
THEY ARE ALSO DERIVED FROM THE
LIMB ELECTRODES, THEY MEASURE
THE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT ONE
POINT WITH RESPECT TO A NULL
POINT. THEY ARE THE AUGMENTED
LIMB LEADS

RA LA

aVR aVL

aVF
RL LL
LEADS
V1,V2,V3,V4,V5,V6
THEY ARE PLACED DIRECTLY ON
THE CHEST. BECAUSE OF THEIR
CLOSE PROXIMITY OF THE HEART,
THEY DO NOT REQUIRE
AUGMENTATION. THEY ARE
CALLED THE PRECORDIAL
LEADS RA LA

V1
V2
V3
V4 V6
V5

RL LL
These leads help to determine heart’s electrical axis. The
limb leads and the augmented limb leads form the frontal
plane. The precordial leads form the horizontal plane.
The Different Views Reflect The Angles At Which LEADS "LOOK" At
The Heart And The Direction Of The Heart's Electrical Depolarization.
Leads Anatomical representation of the heart
V1, V2, V3, V4 Anterior
I, aVL, V5, V6 left lateral
II, III, aVF inferior
aVR, V1 Right atrium
A NORMAL ECG WAVE
REMEMBER
THE NORMAL SIZE
<3 small square

< 2 small square

<3-5 small square

< 2 large square

Understand
ing ECG
Waveform

If a wavefront of
depolarization
travels towards the
positive electrode, a
positive-going
deflection will result. 
If the waveform
travels away from
the positive
electrode, a
negative going
deflection will be
seen. 
 ECG
INTERPRETATION

The More You See, The More You Know

OBTAIN A N ECG, ACT CONFIDENT, READ THE PT DETAILS
OBTAIN A N ECG, ACT CONFIDENT, READ THE PT DETAILS

Some ECG machines come with interpretation software. This one says
the patient is fine. DO NOT totally trust this software.
The best way to interpret an ECG is to do it step-by-step

Rate
Rhythm
Cardiac Axis
P – wave
PR - interval
QRS Complex
ST Segment
QT interval (Include T and U wave)
Other ECG signs
RATE
 CALCULATING RATE

As a general interpretation, look at lead II at the bottom part of the ECG strip. This
lead is the rhythm strip which shows the rhythm for the whole time the ECG is
recorded. Look at the number of square between one R-R interval. To calculate
rate, use any of the following formulas:

300
Rate =
the number of BIG SQUARE between R-R interval

OR

1500
Rate =
the number of SMALL SQUARE between R-R interval
 CALCULATING RATE

For example:

300 1500
Rate = or Rate =
3 15

Rate = 100 beats per minute

 CALCULATING RATE

If you think that the rhythm is not regular, count the number of electrical beats in a
6-second strip and multiply that number by 10.(Note that some ECG strips have 3
seconds and 6 seconds marks) Example below:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

There are 8 waves in this 6-seconds strip.

Rate = (Number of waves in 6-second strips) x 10

= 8 x 10
= 80 bpm
 CALCULATING RATE

You can also count the number of beats on any one row over the ten-second strip
(the whole lenght) and multiply by 6. Example:

Rate = (Number of waves in 10-second strips) x 6

= 13 x 6
= 78 bpm
CALCULATING RATE

Interpretation bpm Causes

Normal 60-99 -

Bradycardia <60 hypothermia, increased vagal tone (due to vagal

stimulation or e.g. drugs), atheletes (fit people)
hypothyroidism, beta blockade, marked intracranial
hypertension, obstructive jaundice, and even in
uraemia, structural SA node disease, or ischaemia.

Tachycardia >100 Any cause of adrenergic stimulation (including

pain); thyrotoxicosis; hypovolaemia; vagolytic drugs
(e.g. atropine) anaemia, pregnancy; vasodilator
drugs, including many hypotensive agents; FEVER,
myocarditis
RHYTHM
 RHYTHM

Look at p waves and their relationship to QRS complexes.

Lead II is commonly used
Regular or irregular?
If in doubt, use a paper strip to map out consecutive beats and see whether the rate
is the same further along the ECG.
Measure ventricular rhythm by measuring the R-R interval and atrial rhythm by
measuring P-P interval.
 RHYTHM

Normal Sinus Rhythm

ECG rhythm characterized by a usual rate of anywhere between 60-99 bpm,

every P wave must be followed by a QRS and every QRS is preceded by P
wave. Normal duration of PR interval is 3-5 small squares. The P wave is
upright in leads I and II
RHYTHM

Sinus Bradycardia

Rate < 60bpm, otherwise normal

 RHYTHM

Sinus Tachycardia

Rate >100bpm, otherwise, normal

 RHYTHM

Sinus pause

In disease (e.g. sick sinus syndrome) the SA node can fail in its pacing
function. If failure is brief and recovery is prompt, the result is only a missed
beat (sinus pause). If recovery is delayed and no other focus assumes
pacing function, cardiac arrest follows.
 RHYTHM

Atrial Fibrillation

A-fib is the most common cardiac arrhythmia involving atria.

Rate= ~150bpm, irregularly irregular, baseline irregularity, no visible p waves,
QRS occur irregularly with its length usually < 0.12s
 RHYTHM

Atrial Flutter

Atrial Rate=~300bpm, similar to A-fib, but have flutter waves, ECG baseline
adapts ‘saw-toothed’ appearance’. Occurs with atrioventricular block (fixed
degree), eg: 3 flutters to 1 QRS complex:
 RHYTHM

Ventricular Fibrillation

A severely abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia) that can be life-threatening.

Emergency- requires Basic Life Support
Rate cannot be discerned, rhythm unorganized
 RHYTHM

Ventricular tachycardia

fast heart rhythm, that originates in one of the ventricles- potentially life-
threatening arrhythmia because it may lead to ventricular fibrillation, asystole,
and sudden death.
Rate=100-250bpm
 RHYTHM

Torsades de Pointes

literally meaning twisting of points, is a distinctive form of polymorphic

ventricular tachycardia characterized by a gradual change in the
amplitude and twisting of the QRS complexes around the isoelectric
line. Rate cannot be determined.
 RHYTHM

Supraventricular Tachycardia

SVT is any tachycardic rhythm originating above the ventricular

tissue.Atrial and ventricular rate= 150-250bpm
Regular rhythm, p is usually not discernable.

*Types:
• Sinoatrial node reentrant tachycardia (SANRT)
• Ectopic (unifocal) atrial tachycardia (EAT)
• Multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT)
• A-fib or A flutter with rapid ventricular response. Without rapid ventricular
response both usually not classified as SVT
• AV nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT)
• Permanent (or persistent) junctional reciprocating tachycardia (PJRT)
• AV reentrant tachycardia (AVRT)
 RHYTHM

Atrial Escape

a cardiac dysrhythmia occurring when sustained suppression of sinus

impulse formation causes other atrial foci to act as cardiac pacemakers.
Rate= 60-80bpm, p wave of atrial escape has abnormal axis and different
from the p wave in the sinus beat. However QRS complexes look exactly
the same.
 RHYTHM

Junctional Escape

Depolarization initiated in the atrioventricular junction when one or more

impulses from the sinus node are ineffective or nonexistent. Rate: 40-60
bpm, Rhythm: Irregular in single junctional escape complex; regular in
junctional escape rhythm, P waves: Depends on the site of the ectopic
focus. They will be inverted, and may appear before or after the QRS
complex, or they may be absent, hidden by the QRS. QRS is usually
normal
 RHYTHM

Ventricular escape

The depolarization wave spreads slowly via abnormal pathway in the

ventricular myocardium and not via the His bundle and bundle
branches.
 RHYTHM

Atrial premature beat  (APB)

Arises from an irritable focus in one of the atria. APB produces different
looking P wave, because depolarization vector is abnormal. QRS complex
has normal duration and same morphology .
 RHYTHM

Junctional Premature Beat

Arises from an irritable focus at the AV junction. The P wave associated with
atrial depolarization in this instance is usually buried inside the QRS complex
and not visible. If p is visible, it is -ve in lead II and +ve in lead aVR and it it
may occur before or after QRS.
 RHYTHM

Premature Ventricular Complexes (PVCs)

is a relatively common event where the heartbeat is initiated by the heart

ventricles(arrow) rather than by the sinoatrial node, Rate depends on
underlying rhythm and number of PVCs. Occasionally irregular rhythm,
no p-wave associated with PVCs. May produce bizarre looking T wave.
 RHYTHM

Asystole

a state of no cardiac electrical activity, hence no contractions of the

myocardium and no cardiac output or blood flow.
Rate, rhythm, p and QRS are absent
 RHYTHM

Pulseless Electrical Activity (PEA)

Not an actual rhythm. The absence of a palpable pulse and myocardial

muscle activity with the presence of organized muscle activity (excluding
VT and VF) on cardiac monitor. Pt is clinically dead.
RHYTHM

Artificial pacemaker

Sharp, thin spike. Rate depends on pacemaker, p wave

maybe absent or present
Ventricular paced rhythm shows wide ventricular pacemaker
spikes
CARDIAC AXIS
 CARDIAC AXIS
The cardiac axis refers to the general direction of the heart's depolarization wavefront
(or mean electrical vector) in the frontal plane. With a healthy conducting system the
cardiac axis is related to where the major muscle bulk of the heart lies.

Electrical impulse that travels towards the electrode produces an upright (positive)
deflection (of the QRS complex) relative to the isoelectric baseline. One that travels
away produces negative deflection. And one that travels at a right angle to the lead,
produces a biphasic wave.
CARDIAC AXIS

To determine cardiac axis look at QRS complexes of lead , II, III.

Axis Lead I Lead II Lead III
Normal Positive Positive Positive/Negative
Right axis Negative Positive Positive
deviation
Left axis Positive Negative Negative
deviation
Remember, positive(upgoing) QRS omplex means the impulse travels towards
the lead. Negative means moving away.
 CARDIAC AXIS

Positive

Positive

Positive

Normal Axis Deviation

 CARDIAC AXIS

Positive

Negative

Negative

Left Axis Deviation

CARDIAC AXIS

Negative

Positive

Positive

Right Axis Deviation

CARDIAC AXIS

Cardiac Axis Causes

Left axis deviation Normal variation in pregnancy, obesity; Ascites,
abdominal distention, tumour; left anterior
hemiblock, left ventricular hypertrophy, Q Wolff-
Parkinson-White syndrome, Inferior MI

Right axis deviation normal finding in children and tall thin adults,
chronic lung disease(COPD), left posterior
hemiblock, Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome,
anterolateral MI.
North West emphysema, hyperkalaemia. lead transposition,
artificial cardiac pacing, ventricular tachycardia
P- WAVE
P -WAVE

Normal P- wave
3 small square wide, and 2.5 small square high.
Always positive in lead I and II in NSR
Always negative in lead aVR in NSR
Commonly biphasic in lead V1
P -WAVE

P pulmonale
Tall peaked P wave. Generally due to enlarged
right atrium- commonly associated with congenital
heart disease, tricuspid valve disease, pulmonary
hypertension and diffuse lung disease.

Biphasic P wave
Its terminal negative deflection more than 40 ms
wide and more than 1 mm deep is an ECG sign of
left atrial enlargement.

P mitrale
Wide P wave, often bifid, may be due to mitral
stenosis or left atrial enlargement.
PR- INTERVAL
PR INTERVAL

NORMAL PR INTERVAL

Long PR interval
may indicate heart
block

Short PR interval
may disease like
Wolf-Parkinson-
PR-Interval 3-5 small square (120-200ms) White
PR-INTERVAL

First degree heart block

P wave precedes QRS complex but P-R intervals prolong (>5 small
squares) and remain constant from beat to beat
 PR-INTERVAL

Second degree heart block

1. Mobitz Type I or Wenckenbach

Runs in cycle, first P-R interval is often normal. With successive beat, P-R
interval lengthens until there will be a P wave with no following QRS complex.
The block is at AV node, often transient, maybe asymptomatic
 PR-INTERVAL

Second degree heart block

2. Mobitz Type 2

P-R interval is constant, duration is normal/prolonged. Periodically, no

conduction between atria and ventricles- producing a p wave with no
associated QRS complex. (blocked p wave).
The block is most often below AV node, at bundle of His or BB,
May progress to third degree heart block
PR-INTERVAL

Third degree heart block (Complete heart block)

No relationship between P waves and QRS complexes

An accessory pacemaker in the lower chambers will typically activate
the ventricles- escape rhythm.
Atrial rate= 60-100bpm. Ventricular rate based on site of escape
pacemaker. Atrial and ventricular rhythm both are regular.
 PR-INTERVAL

Wolff–Parkinson–White syndrome

Wolf Parkinson White Syndrome

One beat from a rhythm strip in V2
demonstrating characteristic findings in
WPW syndrome. Note the characteristic
delta wave (above the blue bar), the short
PR interval (red bar) of 0.08 seconds, and
the long QRS complex (green) at 0.12
seconds

Accessory pathway (Bundle of Kent)

allows early activation of the ventricle
(delta wave and short PR interval)
QRS-COMPLEX
 QRS COMPLEX

NORMAL QRS COMPLEX

S amplitude in V1 + R
amplitude in V5 < 3.5 
Q wave amplitude less than Increased amplitude
1/3 QRS amplitude(R+S) or indicated cardiac hypertrophy
< 1 small square

QRS complex< 3 small square (0.06 - 0.10 sec)

Prolonged indicates hyperkalemia or
bundle branch block
 QRS COMPLEX

Left Bundle Branch Block (LBBB) Right bundle branch block (RBBB)
indirect activation causes left ventricle contracts indirect activation causes right ventricle
later than the right ventricle. contracts later than the left ventricle

QS or rS complex in V1 - W-shaped Terminal R wave  (rSR’) in V1 - M-shaped

RsR' wave in V6- M-shaped Slurred S wave in V6 - W-shaped

Mnemonic: WILLIAM Mnemonic: MARROW

ST- SEGMENT
 ST SEGMENT

NORMAL ST SEGMENT

ST segment is isoelectric
and at the same level as
subsequent PR-interval

ST segment < 2-3 small square (80 to 120 ms)

 ST SEGMENT

OK, WE GONNA TALK ABOUT

MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (MI)

THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF MI

ST-ELEVATION MI (STEMI) AND NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI)

WE DECIDE THIS BY LOOKING AT THE ST SEGMENT IN ALL LEADS

Flat (isoelectric) ± Same level with subsequent PR

segment
NORMAL
ST SEGMENT Elevation or depression of ST segment by 1 mm or
more, measured at J point is abnormal.
J point is the point between QRS and ST segment
 Ischaemic change can be attributed to
ST-SEGMENT different coronary arteries supplying the
area.
Localizing MI
Location of Lead with Affected
Look at ST changes, Q wave in all leads. Grouping MI ST changes coronary
the leads into anatomical location, we have this: artery
I aVR V1 V4 Anterior V1, V2, V3, LAD
V4
II aVL V2 V5 Septum V1, V2 LAD

III aVF V3 V6 left lateral I, aVL, V5, Left

V6 circumflex
inferior II, III, aVF RCA

Right atrium aVR, V1 RCA

*Posterior Posterior RCA

chest leads
(RCA)
*Right Right sided RCA
ventricle leads

(LAD)
*To help identify MI, right sided and
posterior leads can be applied
DIAGNOSING MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION (STEMI)

Criteria:
ST elevation in > 2 chest leads > 2mm elevation
ST elevation in  > 2 limb leads > 1mm elevation
Q wave > 0.04s (1 small square).

*Be careful of LBBB

The diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction should be
made circumspectively in the presence of pre-existing
LBBB. On the other hand, the appearance of new LBBB
should be regarded as sign of acute MI until proven
otherwise

Pathologic Q waves are a sign of previous myocardial infarction.

Definition of a pathologic Q wave

Any Q-wave in leads V2–V3 ≥ 0.02 s or QS complex in leads V2 and V3
Q-wave ≥ 0.03 s and > 0.1 mV deep or QS complex in leads I, II, aVL, aVF, or V4–V6 in any two
leads of a contiguous lead grouping (I, aVL,V6; V4–V6; II, III, and aVF)
R-wave ≥ 0.04 s in V1–V2 and R/S ≥ 1 with a concordant positive T-wave in the absence of a
conduction defect.
A little bit troublesome to remember? I usually take pathological Q wave as >1 small square deep
 ST SEGMENT

ST-ELEVATION MI (STEMI)
0 HOUR Pronounced T Wave initially
ST elevation (convex type)

Depressed R Wave, and Pronounced T Wave. Pathological Q waves

1-24H may appear within hours or may take greater than 24 hr.- indicating full-
thickness MI. Q wave is pathological if it is wider than 40 ms or deeper
than a third of the height of the entire QRS complex

Day 1-2 Exaggeration of T Wave continues for 24h.

Days later T Wave inverts as the ST elevation begins to resolve. Persistent ST

elevation is rare except in the presence of a ventricular aneurysm.

Weeks later ECG returns to normal T wave, but retains pronounced

 Q wave. An old infarct may look like this
 ST SEGMENT

Let’s see this

>2mm

Pathological Q wave
Check again!
I aVR V1 ST elevation in > 2 chest leads > 2mm
V4
Q wave > 0.04s (1 small square).
II aVL V2 V5
Yup, It’s acute
anterolateral MI!
III aVF V3 V6
 ST SEGMENT

How about this one?

Check again!
I aVR V1 V4
Inferior MI!
II aVL V2 V5

III aVF V3 V6
 ST SEGMENT

NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI)

NSTEMI is also known as subendocardial or non Q-wave MI.
In a pt with Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) in which the ECG does not show ST
elevation, NSTEMI (subendocardial MI) is suspected if

• ST Depression (A)
• T wave inversion with or without ST depression (B)
• Q wave and ST elevation will never happen

To confirm a NSTEMI, do Troponin test:

• If positive - NSTEMI
• If negative – unstable angina pectoris
 ST SEGMENT

NON ST-ELEVATION MI (NSTEMI)

N-STEMI: acute coronary syndrome (with troponin increase). Arrows

indicate ischemic ST segment changes. Without appropriate treatment
in many cases STEMI infarction will occur.
 ST SEGMENT

MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA
1mm ST-segment depression
Symmetrical, tall T wave
Long QT- interval

A ST depression is more suggestive of myocardial ischaemia than infarction

ST SEGMENT

PERICARDITIS
ST elevation with
concave shape, mostly
seen in all leads
ST SEGMENT

DIGOXIN
Down sloping ST segment depression
also known as the "reverse tick" or
"reverse check" sign in
supratherapeutic digoxin level.
ST SEGMENT

Now, moving to

LEFT VENTRICULAR AND

RIGHT VENTRICULAR
HYPERTROPHY HYPERTROPHY

So, we have to start looking at the S waves and R waves

 ST SEGMENT

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH)

To determine LVH, use one of the following Criteria:
Sokolow & Lyon Criteria: S (V1) + R(V5 or V6) > 35mm
Cornell Criteria: S (V3) + R (aVL) > 28 mm (men) or > 20 mm (women)
Others: R (aVL) > 13mm
Example:

S (V1) + R(V5) = 15 + 25 = 40mm

S(V3) + R (aVL)= 15 + 14 =29mm
R(aVL) =14 mm LVH!
 ST SEGMENT

Let’s see another example of LVH

LVH strain pattern

Tall R waves in V4 and V5 with down sloping ST segment depression and T

wave inversion are suggestive of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) with strain
pattern. LVH with strain pattern usually occurs in pressure overload of the left
ventricle as in systemic hypertension or aortic stenosis. 
 ST SEGMENT

Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH)

Right axis deviation (QRS axis >100o)
V1(R>S), V6 (S>R)
Right ventricular strain T wave inversion

Example:

So, it’s RVH!

ST SEGMENT

Common Causes of LVH and RVH

LVH RVH
Hypertension (most common cause) Pulmonary hypertension
Aortic stenosis Tetralogy of Fallot
Aortic regurgitation Pulmonary valve stenosis
Mitral regurgitation Ventricular septal defect (VSD)
Coarctation of the aorta High altitude
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Cardiac fibrosis
COPD
Athletic heart syndrome
QT- INTERVAL
QT- INTERVAL

QT interval decreases when heart rate increases.

A general guide to the upper limit of QT interval. For HR = 70 bpm, QT<0.40 sec.
• For every 10 bpm increase above 70 subtract 0.02s.
• For every 10 bpm decrease below 70 add 0.02 s

As a general guide the QT interval should be 0.35- 0.45 s,(<2 large square) and
should not be more than half of the interval between adjacent R waves (R-R
interval)

< 2 large square

 Calculation of QT interval

1.Use lead II. Use lead V5 alternatively if lead II cannot be read.

2.Draw a line through the baseline (preferably the PR segment)
3.Draw a tangent against the steepest part of the end of the T wave. If the T wave has
two positive deflections, the taller deflection should be chosen. If the T wave is
biphasic, the end of the taller deflection should be chosen.
4.The QT interval starts at the beginning of the QRS interval and ends where the
tangent and baseline cross.
5.If the QRS duration exceeds 120ms the amount surpassing ,120ms should be
deducted from the QT interval (i.e. QT=QT-(QRS width-120ms) )

To calculate the heart rate-corrected QT interval QTc. Bazett's formula is used

 QT = 0.04 x 10 small square= 0.4s
18 small square
RR = 0.04 x 18 small square= 0.72s

10 small square

If abnormally prolonged or shortened, there is a risk of developing ventricular

arrhythmias
The QT interval is prolonged in congenital long QT syndrome, but QT
prolongation can also occur as a consequence of
• Medication (anti-arrhythmics, tricyclic antidepressants, phenothiazedes)
• Electrolyte imbalances
• Ischemia.
QT prolongation is often treated with beta blockers.
LONG QT SYNDROME

LQT is a rare inborn heart condition in

which repolarization of the heart is delayed
following a heartbeat. Example: Jervell and
Lange-Nielsen Syndrome or Romano-Ward
Syndrome

T-WAVE

Normal T wave
Asymmetrical, the first half having more gradual slope
than the second half
>1/8 and < 2/3 of the amplitude of corresponding R wave
Amplitude rarely exceeds 10mm
Abnormal T waves are symmetrical, tall, peaked, biphasic,
or inverted.
U-WAVE

The U wave is a wave on an electrocardiogram that is not always seen. It is

typically small, and, by definition, follows the T wave. U waves are thought to
represent repolarization of the papillary muscles or Purkinje fibers

Normal U waves are small, round and symmetrical and positive in lead II. It is
the same direction as T wave in that lead.

Prominent U waves are most often seen in hypokalemia, but may be present
in hypercalcemia, thyrotoxicosis, or exposure to digitalis,epinephrine, and Class 1A and
3 antiarrhythmics, as well as in congenital long QT syndrome, and in the setting of
intracranial hemorrhage.
An inverted U wave may represent myocardial ischemia or left ventricular volume overload
OTHER ECG SIGNS
HYPERKALAEMIA

Narrow and tall peaked T wave (A) is an early sign

PR interval becomes longer
P wave loses its amplitude and may disappear
QRS complex widens (B)
When hyperkalemia is very severe, the widened QRS complexes merge with their
corresponding T waves and the resultant ECG looks like a series of sine waves (C).
If untreated, the heart arrests in asystole

HYPOKALAEMIA

T wave becomes flattened together with appearance of a prominent U

wave.
The ST segment may become depressed and the T wave inverted.
these additional changes are not related to the degree of hypokalemia.
HYPERCALCEMIA/HYPOCALCEMIA

Usually, signs are not obvious

Hypercalcemia is associated with short QT interval (A) and
Hypocalcemia with long QT interval (B).
Interval shortening or lengthening is mainly in the ST segment.
PULMONARY EMBOLISM

Tachycardia and incomplete RBBB differentiated PE from no PE.

SIQIIITIII = deep S wave in lead I, pathological Q wave in lead III, and inverted
T wave in lead III.
The ECG is often abnormal in PE, but findings are not sensitive, not specific
Any cause of acute cor pulmonale can cause the S1Q3T3 finding on the ECG.
 Matur
Now, find some ECG quizzes and practice!

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