Mathematical

12.
3: The Deuteron
 The determination of how the neutron and proton are bound
together in a deuteron.
 The deuteron mass = 2.013553 u
 The mass of a deuteron atom = 2.014102 u
 The difference = 0.000549 u; the mass of an electron
 The deuteron nucleus is bound by a mass-energy Bd
 The mass of a deuteron is
 Add an electron mass to each side of Eq. (12.6)

The Deuteron
 md + me is the atomic deuterium mass M(2H) and mp + me is the
atomic hydrogen mass. Thus Eq.(12.7) becomes
 Because the electron masses cancel in almost all nuclear-mass

difference calculations, we use atomic masses rather than nuclear
masses.
 Convert this to energy using u = 931.5 MeV / c2
 Even for heavier nuclei we neglect the electron binding energies

(13.6 eV) because the nuclear binding energy (2.2 MeV) is almost
one million times greater.
The Deuteron
 The binding energy of any nucleus = the energy required to
separate the nucleus into free neutrons and protons.
Experimental Determination of Nuclear Binding Energies

 Check the 2.22-MeV binding energy by using a nuclear reaction. We
scatter gamma rays from deuteron gas and look for the breakup of a
deuteron into a neutron and a proton:
 This nuclear reaction is called photodisintegration or a photonuclear

reaction.
 The mass-energy relation is
 where hf is the incident photon energy.

Kn and Kp are the neutron and proton kinetic energies.
The Deuteron
 The minimum energy required for the photodisintegration:
 Momentum must be conserved in the reaction (Kn, Kp ≠ 0)
 Experiment shows that a photon of energy less than 2.22 MeV

cannot dissociate a deuteron
Deuteron Spin and Magnetic Moment

 Deuteron’s nuclear spin quantum number is 1. This indicates the
neutron and proton spins are aligned parallel to each other.

 The nuclear magnetic moment of a deuteron is 0.86μN ≈ the sum of
the free proton and neutron 2.79μN − 1.91μN = 0.88μN.

12.4: Nuclear Forces
 The angular distribution of neutron classically scattered by
protons.
 Neutron + proton (np) and proton + proton (pp) elastic
The nuclear potential

Nuclear Forces
 The internucleon potential has a “hard core” that prevents the
nucleons from approaching each other closer than about 0.4 fm.
 The proton has charge radius up to 1 fm.

 Two nucleons within about 2 fm of each other feel an attractive force.
 The nuclear force (short range):

 It falls to zero so abruptly with interparticle separation. stable
 The interior nucleons are completely surrounded by other nucleons
with which they interact.
 The only difference between the np and pp potentials is the Coulomb

potential shown for r ≥ 3 fm for the pp force.
Nuclear Forces
 The nuclear force is known to be spin dependent.
 The neutron and proton spins are aligned for the bound state of
the deuteron, but there is no bound state with the spins
antialigned.
 The nn system is more difficult to study because free neutrons are

not stable from analyses of experiments.
 The nuclear potential between two nucleons seems independent
of their charge (charge independence of nuclear forces).
 The term nucleon refers to either neutrons or protons because the

neutron and proton can be considered different charge states of
the same particle.
12.5: Nuclear Stability
 The binding energy of a nucleus
against dissociation into any other
possible combination of nucleons.
Ex. nuclei R and S.
 Proton (or neutron) separation

energy:
 The energy required to remove one
proton (or neutron) from a nuclide.
 All stable and unstable nuclei that

are long-lived enough to be
observed.
Nuclear Stability
 The line representing the stable nuclides is the line of stability.
 It appears that for A ≤ 40, nature prefers the number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus to be about the same Z ≈ N.
However, for A ≥ 40, there is a decided preference for N > Z
because the nuclear force is independent of whether the particles
are nn, np, or pp.
 As the number of protons increases, the Coulomb force between

all the protons becomes stronger until it eventually affects the
binding significantly.
 The work required to bring the charge inside the sphere from
infinity is
Nuclear Stability
 For a single proton,
 The total Coulomb repulsion energy in a nucleus is
 For heavy nuclei, the nucleus will have a preference for fewer
protons than neutrons because of the large Coulomb repulsion
energy.
 Most stable nuclides have both even Z and even N (even-even

nuclides).
 Only four stable nuclides have odd Z and odd N (odd-odd nuclides).
The Liquid Drop Model
 Treats the nucleus as a collection of interacting particles in a liquid drop.
 The total binding energy, the semi-empirical mass formula is
 The volume term (av) indicates that the binding energy is approximately
the sum of all the interactions between the nucleons.
 The second term is called the surface effect because the nucleons on
the nuclear surface are not completely surrounded by other nucleons.
 The third term is the Coulomb energy in Eq. (12.17) and Eq. (12.18)
The Liquid Drop Model
 The fourth term is due to the symmetry energy. In the absence of
Coulomb forces, the nucleus prefers to have N ≈ Z and has a quantum-
mechanical origin, depending on the exclusion principle.
 The last term is due to the pairing energy and reflects the fact that the
nucleus is more stable for even-even nuclides. Use values given by
Fermi to determine this term.
where Δ = 33 MeV·A−3/4
 No nuclide heavier than has been found in nature. If they ever
existed, they must have decayed so quickly that quantities sufficient to
measure no longer exist.
Binding Energy Per Nucleon
 Use this to compare the relative

stability of different nuclides
 It peaks near A = 56
 The curve increases rapidly,
demonstrating the saturation
effect of nuclear force
 Sharp peaks for the even-even
nuclides 4He, 12C, and 16O
tight bound
Nuclear Models
 Current research focuses on the constituent quarks and
physicists have relied on a multitude of models to explain
nuclear force behavior.
1) Independent-particle models:
The nucleons move nearly independently in a common
nuclear potential. The shell model has been the most
successful of these.
2) Strong-interaction models:
The nucleons are strongly coupled together. The liquid drop
model has been successful in explaining nuclear masses as
well as nuclear fission.
12.6: Radioactive Decay
 The discoverers of radioactivity were Wilhelm Röntgen, Henri
Becquerel, Marie Curie and her husband Pierre.
 Marie Curie and her husband Pierre discovered polonium and
radium in 1898.
 The simplest decay form is that of a gamma ray, which represents
the nucleus changing from an excited state to lower energy state.
 Other modes of decay include emission of α particles, β particles,
protons, neutrons, and fission.
 The disintegrations or decays per unit time (activity):
where dN / dt is negative because total number N decreases with

time.
Radioactive Decay
 SI unit of activity is the becquerel: 1 Bq = 1 decay / s
 Recent use is the Curie (Ci) 3.7 × 1010 decays / s
 If N(t) is the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample at time t,

and λ (decay constant) is the probability per unit time that any
given nucleus will decay:
 If we let N(t = 0) ≡ N0
----- radioactive decay law
Radioactive Decay
 The activity R is
where R0 is the initial activity at t = 0

 It is common to refer to the half-life t1/2 or the mean lifetime τ
rather than its decay constant.
 The half-life is
 The mean lifetime is

Radioactive Decay
 The number of radioactive nuclei as a function of time
12.7: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Decay
When a nucleus decays, all the conservation laws must be

observed:
 Mass-energy
 Linear momentum
 Angular momentum
 Electric charge
 Conservation of nucleons
 The total number of nucleons (A, the mass number) must be

conserved in a low-energy nuclear reaction or decay.
12.8: Radioactive Nuclides
 The unstable nuclei found in nature exhibit natural radioactivity.
Radioactive Nuclides
 The radioactive nuclides made in the laboratory exhibit artificial
radioactivity.
 Heavy radioactive nuclides can change their mass number only
by alpha decay (AX → A−4D) but can change their charge number
Z by either alpha or beta decay.
 There are only four paths that the heavy naturally occurring
radioactive nuclides may take as they decay.
 Mass numbers expressed by either:
 4n
 4n + 1
 4n + 2
 4n + 3
Radioactive Nuclides
 The sequence of one of the radioactive series Th
232
 Bi can decay by either alpha or beta decay (branching).

212
Time Dating Using Lead Isotopes
 A plot of the abundance ratio of 206Pb / 204Pb versus 207Pb / 204Pb
can be a sensitive indicator of the age of lead ores. Such
techniques have been used to show that meteorites, believed to
be left over from the formation of the solar system, are 4.55 billion
years old.
 The growth curve for lead ores from various deposits:
The age of the specimens can be obtained from the abundance ratio
of 206Pb/204Pb versus 207Pb/204Pb.
Radioactive Carbon Dating
 Radioactive 14C is produced in our
atmosphere by the bombardment of 14N by
neutrons produced by cosmic rays.
 When living organisms die, their intake of 14C

ceases, and the ratio of 14C / 12C (= R)
decreases as 14C decays. The period just
before 9000 years ago had a higher 14C / 12C
ratio by factor of about 1.5 than it does
today.
 Because the half-life of 14C is 5730 years, it
is convenient to use the 14C / 12C ratio to
determine the age of objects over a range up
to 45,000 years ago.

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12.

 Add an electron mass to each side of Eq. (12.6)

 Because the electron masses cancel in almost all nuclear-mass

 Convert this to energy using u = 931.5 MeV / c2

 Even for heavier nuclei we neglect the electron binding energies

Experimental Determination of Nuclear Binding Energies

 This nuclear reaction is called photodisintegration or a photonuclear

 where hf is the incident photon energy.

 Experiment shows that a photon of energy less than 2.22 MeV

Deuteron Spin and Magnetic Moment

neutron and proton spins are aligned parallel to each other.

the free proton and neutron 2.79μN − 1.91μN = 0.88μN.

The nuclear potential

 The proton has charge radius up to 1 fm.

 The nuclear force (short range):

 The only difference between the np and pp potentials is the Coulomb

 The nn system is more difficult to study because free neutrons are

 The term nucleon refers to either neutrons or protons because the

 Proton (or neutron) separation

 All stable and unstable nuclei that

 As the number of protons increases, the Coulomb force between

 The total Coulomb repulsion energy in a nucleus is

 Most stable nuclides have both even Z and even N (even-even

 Use this to compare the relative

 The disintegrations or decays per unit time (activity):

where dN / dt is negative because total number N decreases with

 If N(t) is the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample at time t,

where R0 is the initial activity at t = 0

 The mean lifetime is

When a nucleus decays, all the conservation laws must be

 The total number of nucleons (A, the mass number) must be

 Bi can decay by either alpha or beta decay (branching).

 When living organisms die, their intake of 14C

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