Boyce/Diprima/Meade Global Ed, CH 2.5: Autonomous Equations and Population Dynamics

Boyce/DiPrima/Meade Global ed, Ch 2.
5: Autonomous
Equations and Population Dynamics
Elementary Differential Equations and Boundary Value Problems, Global edition, by William E. Boyce, Richard C. DiPrima, and Doug Meade ©2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• In this section we examine equations of the form dy/dt = f (y),

called autonomous equations, where the independent
variable t does not appear explicitly.
• The main purpose of this section is to learn how geometric
methods can be used to obtain qualitative information
directly from a differential equation without solving it.
• Example (Exponential Growth):
dy
 ry , r  0
dt
• Solution:
y  y0 e rt
Logistic Growth
• An exponential model y' = ry, with solution y = ert, predicts
unlimited growth, with rate r > 0 independent of population.
• Assuming instead that growth rate depends on population
dy
size, replace r by a function h(y) to obtain =h(y)y .
dt
• We want to choose growth rate h(y) so that
– h(y) @ r > 0 when y is small,
– h(y) decreases as y grows larger, and
– h(y) < 0 when y is sufficiently large.
The simplest such function is h(y) = r – ay, where a > 0.
• Our differential equation then becomes
dy
  r  ay  y, r , a  0
dt
• This equation is known as the Verhulst, or logistic, equation.
Logistic Equation
• The logistic equation from the previous slide is

dy
  r  ay  y, r, a  0
dt
• This equation is often rewritten in the equivalent form
dy  y
 r 1   y ,
dt  K
where K = r/a. The constant r is called the intrinsic growth
rate, and as we will see, K represents the carrying capacity
of the population.
• A direction field for the logistic
equation with r = 1 and K = 10
is given here.
Logistic Equation: Equilibrium Solutions
• Our logistic equation is

dy  y
 r 1   y , r, K  0
dt  K
• Two equilibrium solutions are clearly present:
y  1 (t )  0, y  2 (t )  K
• In direction field below, with r = 1, K = 10, note behavior of
solutions near equilibrium solutions:
y = 0 is unstable,
y = 10 is asymptotically stable.
Autonomous Equations: Equilibrium Solns
• Equilibrium solutions of a general first order autonomous

equation y' = f (y) can be found by locating roots of f (y) = 0.
• These roots of f (y) are called critical points.
• For example, the critical points of the logistic equation
dy  y
 r 1   y
dt  K
• are y = 0 and y = K.
• Thus critical points are constant
functions (equilibrium solutions)
in this setting.
Logistic Equation: Qualitative Analysis and
Curve Sketching (1 of 7)
• To better understand the nature of solutions to autonomous
equations, we start by graphing f (y) vs. y.
• In the case of logistic growth, that means graphing the
following function and analyzing its graph using calculus.
 y
f ( y )  r 1   y
 K
Logistic Equation: Critical Points (2 of 7)
• The intercepts of f occur at y = 0 and y = K, corresponding

to the critical points of logistic equation.
• The vertex of the parabola is (K/2, rK/4), as shown below.
æ yö
f (y) =r ç1- ÷y
è Kø
éæ 1 ö æ y öù
f '(y) =r êç- ÷y + ç1- ÷ú
ëè K ø è K øû
r set K
=- [ 2y - K ] =0 Þ y =
K 2
æK ö æ K öæ K ö rK
f ç ÷=r ç1-
øç
=
è 2 ø è 2K ÷ è2 ÷ø 4
Logistic Solution: Increasing, Decreasing (3 of 7)
• Note dy/dt > 0 for 0 < y < K, so y is an increasing function of t

there (indicate with right arrows along y-axis on 0 < y < K).
• Similarly, y is a decreasing function of t for y > K (indicate
with left arrows along y-axis on y > K).
• In this context the y-axis is often called the phase line.
dy  y
 r 1   y , r  0
dt  K
Logistic Solution: Steepness, Flatness (4 of 7)
• Note dy/dt  0 when y  0 or y  K, so y is relatively flat

there, and y gets steep as y moves away from 0 or K.
dy  y
 r 1   y
dt  K
Logistic Solution: Concavity (5 of 7)
• Next, to examine concavity of y(t), we find y'':

dy d2y dy
 f ( y)  2
 f ( y )  f ( y ) f ( y )
dt dt dt
• Thus the graph of y is concave up when f and f ' have same
sign, which occurs when 0 < y < K/2 and y > K.
• The graph of y is concave down when f and f ' have opposite
signs, which occurs when K/2 < y < K.
• Inflection point occurs at intersection of y and line y = K/2.
Logistic Solution: Curve Sketching (6 of 7)
• Combining the information on the previous slides, we have:

– Graph of y increasing when 0 < y < K.
– Graph of y decreasing when y > K.
– Slope of y approximately zero when y @ 0 or y @ K.
– Graph of y concave up when 0 < y < K/2 and y > K.
– Graph of y concave down when K/2 < y < K.
– Inflection point when y = K/2.
• Using this information, we can
sketch solution curves y for
different initial conditions.
Logistic Solution: Discussion (7 of 7)
• Using only the information present in the differential equation

and without solving it, we obtained qualitative information
about the solution y.
• For example, we know where the graph of y is the steepest,
and hence where y changes most rapidly. Also, y tends
asymptotically to the line y = K, for large t.
• The value of K is known as the environmental carrying
capacity, or saturation level, for the species.
• Note how solution behavior differs
from that of exponential equation,
and thus the decisive effect of
nonlinear term in logistic equation.
Solving the Logistic Equation (1 of 3)
• Provided y ≠ 0 and y ≠ K, we can rewrite the logistic ODE:

dy
 rdt
1  y K  y
• Expanding the left side using partial fractions,
1 A B
   1  Ay  B 1  y K   B  1, A  y K
1  y K  y 1  y K y
• Thus the logistic equation can be rewritten as
1 1/ K 
  dy  rdt
 y 1 y / K 
• Integrating the above result, we obtain
y
ln y  ln 1   rt  C
K
Solving the Logistic Equation (2 of 3)
• We have:
y
ln y  ln 1   rt  C
K
• If 0 < y0 < K, then 0 < y < K and hence
 y
ln y  ln1    rt  C
 K
• Rewriting, using properties of logs:
 y  y rt  C y
ln    rt  C   e   ce rt
1  y K  1 y K 1 y K
y0 K
or y  , where y0  y (0)
y 0   K  y0  e  rt
Solution of the Logistic Equation (3 of 3)
• We have:
y0 K
y
y0   K  y0  e  rt
for 0 < y0 < K.

• It can be shown that solution is also valid for y0 > K. Also,
this solution contains equilibrium solutions y = 0 and y = K.
• Hence solution to logistic equation is
y0 K
y
y0   K  y0  e  rt
Logistic Solution: Asymptotic Behavior
• The solution to logistic ODE is

y0 K
y
y0   K  y0  e  rt
• We use limits to confirm asymptotic behavior of solution:

y0 K y0 K
lim y  lim  lim K
t  t  y0   K  y 0  e  rt t   y0
• Thus we can conclude that the equilibrium solution y(t) = K
is asymptotically stable, while equilibrium solution y(t) = 0
is unstable.
• The only way to guarantee that the solution remains near
zero is to make y0 = 0.
y0 K
y
y0   K  y0  e  rt
Example 1: Pacific Halibut (1 of 2)
• Let y be biomass (in kg) of halibut population at time t, with
r = 0.71/year and K = 80.5 x 106 kg. If y0 = 0.25K, find
(a) biomass 2 years later
(b) the time t such that y(t ) = 0.75K.
(a) For convenience, scale equation:
y y0 K
=
K y0 K +[1- y0 / K ]e- rt
Then
y(2) 0.25
= - (0.71)(2)
@ 0.5797
K 0.25 + 0.75e
and hence
y (2)  0.5797 K  46.7 106 kg
Example 1: Pacific Halibut, Part (b) (2 of 2)
(b) Find time t for which y( t ) = 0.75K.

y y0 K

K y0 K  1  y0 K  e  rt
y0 K
0.75 =
y0 K + ( 1- y0 K ) e- rt
é y0 æ y0 ö - rt ù y0
0.75 ê + ç1- ÷e ú =
ëK è K ø û K
0.75 y0 K + 0.75 ( 1- y0 K ) e- rt =y0 K
0.25y0 K y0 K
e- rt = =
0.75 ( 1- y0 K ) 3( 1- y0 K )
- 1 æ 0.25 ö
t= ln ç ÷ » 3.095 years
0.71 è 3( 0.75 ) ø
Critical Threshold Equation (1 of 2)
• Consider the following modification of the logistic ODE:

dy  y
  r 1   y , r  0
dt  T
• The graph of the right hand side f (y) is given below.
Critical Threshold Equation: Qualitative
Analysis and Solution (2 of 2)
• Performing an analysis similar to that of the logistic case, we
obtain a graph of solution curves shown below.
• T is a threshold level for y0, in that population dies off or
grows unbounded, depending on which side of T the initial
value y0 is.
• See also laminar flow discussion in text.
• It can be shown that the solution to the threshold equation
dy  y
  r 1   y , r  0
dt  T
is
y0T
y
y0   T  y0  e rt
Logistic Growth with a Threshold (1 of 2)
• In order to avoid unbounded growth for y > T as in previous

setting, consider the following modification of the logistic
equation:
dy æ y öæ y ö
=- r ç1- ÷ç1- ÷y, r > 0 and 0 < T < K
dt è T øè K ø
• The graph of the right hand side f (y) is given below.

Logistic Growth with a Threshold (2 of 2)
• Performing an analysis similar to that of the logistic case, we

obtain a graph of solution curves shown below right.
• T is threshold value for y0, in that population dies off or
grows towards K, depending on which side of T y0 is.
• K is the carrying capacity level.
• Note: y = 0 and y = K are stable equilibrium solutions,
and y = T is an unstable equilibrium solution.

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Boyce/DiPrima/Meade Global ed, Ch 2.

• In this section we examine equations of the form dy/dt = f (y),

• The logistic equation from the previous slide is

• Our logistic equation is

• Equilibrium solutions of a general first order autonomous

• The intercepts of f occur at y = 0 and y = K, corresponding

• Note dy/dt > 0 for 0 < y < K, so y is an increasing function of t

• Note dy/dt  0 when y  0 or y  K, so y is relatively flat

• Next, to examine concavity of y(t), we find y'':

• Combining the information on the previous slides, we have:

• Using only the information present in the differential equation

• Provided y ≠ 0 and y ≠ K, we can rewrite the logistic ODE:

for 0 < y0 < K.

• The solution to logistic ODE is

• We use limits to confirm asymptotic behavior of solution:

(b) Find time t for which y( t ) = 0.75K.

• Consider the following modification of the logistic ODE:

• In order to avoid unbounded growth for y > T as in previous

• The graph of the right hand side f (y) is given below.

• Performing an analysis similar to that of the logistic case, we

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