Iii Viscous Resistance

RESISTANCE OF SHIPS
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• To determine the resistance of a ship from the
resistance of the model requires the total
resistance to be divided into two parts.
• This was first proposed by W. Froude, who

divided the total resistance into frictional
resistance and residuary resistance and also
stated the law of comparison :
RR V
RT  RF  RR  constant if  constant
 L
for geometrical similar ships
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Froude then developed a method to determine
RF for a model or a ship.
• He tested a series of planks of different lengths
over a range of speeds. The surface of the
planks varied from smooth to rough. The
resistance of the planks was expressed by the
formula :
RF  f S V n
f  friction coefficient dependent on length and nature of surface
S  Wetted surface
V  Speed
n  1.83 for smooth surfaces, 2.00 for rough surfaces
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Froude extrapolated his results to greater
lengths, and proposed that the frictional
resistance of a model or a ship could be taken to
be equal to the resistance of an “equivalent
plank”, i.e. a plank having the same length and
wetted surface as the model or ship.
• Froude’s results were later re-analysed by his

son, R.E. Froude, to give a formula that became
the standard method of calculating the frictional
resistance of ships and models :
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
RF  f S V 1.825
2
RF in lbs, S in ft and V in knots
0.053
f  0.00871  for sea water
L  8.8
0.0516
f  0.00846  for fresh water
L  8.8
L in feet
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Modern approach :
– Use of non-dimensional parameters based on
Dimensional Analysis
– Division of total resistance coefficient into viscous
resistance coefficient and wave resistance coefficient
– Viscous resistance coefficient is calculated from two-
dimensional frictional resistance coefficient
– Two-dimensional frictional resistance coefficient may
be determined from the Boundary Layer Theory as a
function of Reynolds number
CT  CV  CW CF 0  f  Rn 
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Boundary Layer Theory : Prandtl 1904
• No slip condition. Velocity increases from zero at solid
boundary to nearly the value for inviscid flow in a thin
layer of fluid next to the boundary. This is called the
boundary layer.
• The momentum supplied to the water in the boundary
layer by the hull is a measure of the frictional resistance.
• It is assumed that the effects of viscosity on the flow are
confined to the boundary layer and the flow outside the
boundary layer is that of an inviscid fluid.
• Greatly simplifies viscous flow problems.
Boundary Layer on a Plane Surface
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Laminar flow. Turbulence. Transition from
laminar flow to turbulent flow.
• Critical Reynolds number – depends on
roughness of surface and presence of
disturbances in the incoming flow and other
factors.
• Flow around the ship is turbulent because of
high Reynolds number, rougher surface than
model
• Flow around model may be laminar because of
low Reynolds number. Causes serious error.
Special measures to make flow turbulent around
ship models.
Laminar, Transition and Turbulent Friction Lines
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Determination of two-dimensional frictional
resistance by Boundary Layer Theory : “Friction
lines” - Prandtl-Karman line
1

CF 0  0.074 Rn 5
• Other friction lines :

0.455
– Prandtl-Schlichting CF 0 
 log10 Rn  2.58
0.242
– Schoenherr  log10  Rn CF 0 
CF 0
Some Turbulent Friction Lines
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• There are many such friction lines.
• In calculating the frictional resistance of the ship,

it is necessary to add a roughness allowance,
typically 0.0004.
• For laminar flow, the Blasius friction line is used :

1

CF 0  1.328 Rn 2 (Laminar)
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Hughes : experiments with plates and shallow draught
pontoons of varying length-breadth ratio and derived
the formula :
CF 0  0.066  log10 Rn  2.03

2
for two-dimensional plane surfaces of infinite aspect

ratio.
• He concluded that the ratio of the resistance of a plane
surface of finite aspect ratio to that of infinite aspect
ratio depended only on the aspect ratio and not on the
Reynolds number.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The frictional resistance of a curved body is
different from that of a plane surface because :
– The velocity distribution is different (Figure)
– The water particles have to traverse a greater
distance and hence have a higher velocity.
• The difference between the frictional resistance
of a three-dimensional body such as a ship and
a plane surface (flat plate) is called form
resistance.
Flow Past a Curved Surface
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Hughes suggested that by analogy the ratio of the
frictional resistance coefficient of a three-
dimensional body such as a ship to the resistance
of a plane surface of infinite aspect ratio at the
same Reynolds number is constant. This ratio is
called the form factor :
CF  ship 
r  1 k  both at the same Rn
CF 0
• The form factor depends upon the shape or “form”
of the ship but is independent of Reynolds
number.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Other methods of taking three-dimensional
shape of ship into account : Lap-Troost,
Granville, and others.
• Empirical formulas for determining form factor.
• Prohaska’s method : based on theory that CW is
proportional to fourth power of Fn, i.e.
CT   1  k  CF 0  CW   1  k  CF 0  a Fn4
so that 4
CT a Fn
  1 k  
CF 0 CF 0
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Or, more generally :
CT   1  k  CF 0  a Fnb
The form factor 1 + k can be obtained by fitting

the experimental data to these equations.
• The International Towing Tank Conference 1957

decided to use the following formula for
calculating the frictional resistance of ships and
models :
CF  0.075  log10 Rn  2 
2
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The ITTC 1957 Line is a “model-ship correlation
line” and not a two-dimensional friction line. It is
the Hughes line with a built-in form factor.
• However, it is now quite relevant to use a form

factor with the ITTC 1957 line as per ITTC
recommendations in 1978.
• The ITTC 1978 line is now the standard method

for calculating frictional resistance of ships and
models.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The pressure distribution around a three-
dimensional body is different from that
around a two-dimensional body (Figure)
• In an inviscid flow, the pressure
distribution does not lead to any
resistance.
• In viscous flow, the pressure gradually
reduces from forward to aft compared to
the pressure in inviscid flow.
• This gives rise to viscous pressure
resistance.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• If the body is streamlined, viscous
pressure resistance is small and need not
be considered separately.
• If the body has large slopes in the after
body or has discontinuities, the flow
cannot follow the curved surface closely.
The flow “separates” from the surface and
eddies are created.
• This can be explained with the help of the
Boundary Layer Theory (Figure).
Boundary Layer Separation
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Boundary layer separation and the creation of
eddies gives rise to eddy resistance or
separation drag.
• Extent of separation and magnitude of eddy
resistance depend upon many factors : laminar
flow or turbulent flow, Reynolds number,
hydrostatic pressure.
• Separation can be reduced by boundary layer
suction, but this is rarely used in ships.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The behaviour of rough surfaces is explained by
the Boundary layer Theory :
– At low Reynolds numbers when the flow is laminar,

the effect of roughness is negligible – the rough
surface behaves like a smooth surface.
– In a turbulent boundary layer, there is a laminar sub-

layer whose thickness decreases as the Reynolds
number increases. So long as the roughness
elements are within the laminar sub-layer, they do not
affect the flow.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
– As the Reynolds number increases and the laminar
sub-layer thickness decreases, the roughness elements
project into the turbulent part of the boundary layer and
the effect of roughness becomes increasingly evident.
– At sufficiently high Reynolds numbers, the thickness of
the laminar sub-layer is small compared to the height of
the roughness elements ks, and the surface behaves
fully like a rough surface, the resistance being
proportional to V 2.
– This is important for ship model testing : the Reynolds
number of the model is small and it is easy to make it
hydrodynamically smooth, but the ship with its much
higher Reynolds number cannot be made to behave as
if it had a smooth surface.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The roughness of the ship surface is taken into
account by adding a roughness allowance CF
• A typical value is CF = 0.0004, but one may
use the following formula due to Bowden :
1
3  kS  3
10 CF  105    0.64
 L
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• A standard value of hull surface roughness used in
determining the frictional resistance of a ship is ks =
150 microns (150 x 10-6 m), but much lower values
for new ships are obtained by using modern
shipbuilding methods and paint technology.
• In service, the hull surface becomes progressively
rougher due to damage to the paint, corrosion and
erosion of the hull surface and due to “fouling”. This
makes it necessary to clean and re-paint the hull
surface when the ship is dry-docked.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• The rate of fouling depends upon factors such
as the times spent at sea and in port, in
temperate waters and in tropical waters. An
allowance for the increase in resistance due to
the roughening of the hull surface is made (e.g.
a drop in speed of ¼ % per day in temperate
waters and ½ % per day in tropical waters at
constant power).
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• “Self-polishing co-polymer” paints (SPC coatings)
not only prevent fouling but actually become
smoother with time in service so that there is no
increase in resistance with “days out of dry-dock”.
This allows intervals between dry-dockings to be
extended.
• Unfortunately, SPC coatings contain tri-butyl tin
(TBT) which causes excessive destruction of
marine life. Paints containing TBT are now banned,
and have been replaced by newer coatings that
may not have self-polishing characteristics.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Example 1 : A ship of length 225 m, breadth 36 m and
full load draught 11.8 m has a block coefficient of 0.843
and a wetted surface of 11800 m2. A model to a scale of
36 is made of the ship and a resistance test carried out.
The model has a resistance of 29.328 N at a speed of
1.200 m per sec. Determine the effective power of the
ship at the corresponding speed using the Froude
method.
VISCOUS RESISTANCE
• Example: A ship of length 225 m, breadth 36 m
and draught 12 m has a block coefficient of
0.843 and a wetted surface of 11800 m2. A
model to a scale of 36 is made of the ship and a
resistance test carried out. The model is found
to have a resistance of 29.328 N at a speed of
1.200 m per sec. Determine the effective power
of the ship at the corresponding speed using the
ITTC line with a form factor of 1.18 and a
roughness allowance of 0.0004.

Iii Viscous Resistance

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Iii Viscous Resistance

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RESISTANCE OF SHIPS

• This was first proposed by W. Froude, who

• Froude’s results were later re-analysed by his

• Other friction lines :

• In calculating the frictional resistance of the ship,

• For laminar flow, the Blasius friction line is used :

CF 0  0.066  log10 Rn  2.03

for two-dimensional plane surfaces of infinite aspect

The form factor 1 + k can be obtained by fitting

• The International Towing Tank Conference 1957

• However, it is now quite relevant to use a form

• The ITTC 1978 line is now the standard method

– At low Reynolds numbers when the flow is laminar,

– In a turbulent boundary layer, there is a laminar sub-

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