Methods of Research

Lesson 4: Concepts, Variables, Indicators and Measurement

Dr. Racidon P. Bernarte
 Levels of Abstraction

• Theory-abstract statements that make claims about the world

• Concepts-building blocks of the theory which are usually abstract
• Indicators-phenomena which point to the existence of concepts
• Variables-components of indicators which can be measured
• Values-actual unit of measurements of the variables
 Levels of Abstraction

• Theory-poverty leads to poor health

• Concepts-poverty, poor health
• Indicators of poverty-low income, poor living condition, restricted diet
• Variables of poor living condition-levels of overcrowding, provision of sanitary
facilities, letter of litter
• Values of overcrowding-number of people per room, floor areas of dwelling,
number of dwelling per hectare etc.
Important consideration in formulating a research
problem:

• The use of concepts

• The construction of hypotheses
 Nature of Concepts

• Highly subjective as their understanding varies

from person to person
• “This food is excellent”
• “I Think the show is wonderful”
• “The guidance counselling is effective”
• We are providing a quality of education to our
students”
 Nature of Concepts

• Mental images or perceptions that summarizes

similar ideas, observations or feeling.
• Their meanings vary remarkably from
individual to individual.
• Beauty
• Rich
• Excellence
• Education
 Nature of Concepts

• Concepts may not be measurable; it should be

operationalized in measurable terms so that
extent of variation in respondent’s understanding
is reduced if not eliminated
 Concepts: Applied vs. Social Science

• Normal (?) science deals • Social sciences often use

with concepts that are well concepts that are more
defined and to great extent abstract and therefore the
standardized measures (e.g. standardization in
speed, distance, volume, measurement varies or there
weight, size, etc.) is little agreement (e.g. social
class, development, poverty,
etc.)

• Thus, our goal is that our measurements of the different concepts

are valid or match as much as possible the “real” world
 Variable
• An image, perception or concept that is capable of
measurement—hence capable of taking on
different values.
• A Concept that can be measured.
• Something that varies.
• A symbol which numerical or values are attached.
• Characteristic or phenomenon that may take on
different values; variables must vary!
 Variable
Variable Gender
Gender

Attribute
Attribute Attribute
Attribute Female
Female Male
Male
 Concepts and Variables

• Concepts are mental images or perceptions and

therefore their meanings vary remarkably from
individual to individual.
• Variables are measurable concepts with varying
degree of accuracy.
• Measurability is the main difference between
concept and variable.
 Concepts and Variables

• It is important for the concepts to be converted

into variables as they can be subjected to
measurement.
• Operationalize—how it will be measured
• Identifying indicators—a set of criteria reflective
of the concept—which can be converted into
variables
 Concepts and Variables

Conce Indica Variab

pts tors les
Concepts and Variables
Concepts and Variables
Concepts and Variables
 Types of Variables

© Research Methodology, Third Edition by Ranjit Kumar (2011, SAGE)

 Types of Variables

• Independent Variable —the cause to be

responsible for bringing about change in a
phenomenon or situation.
• Is the major variable you hope to investigate.
• It is the variable which is selected, manipulated,
and measured by the researcher.
 Types of Variables

• Dependent Variable —the outcome of the change

brought about by introduction of an independent
variable
• The variable that you observed and measured
to determine the effect of independent variable
 Types of Variables

• Extraneous Variable —several other factors

operating in a real-life situation may affect
changes in the dependent variable.
• EV not measured in the study, may increase or
decrease the magnitude or strength of the
relationship between IV and DV.
 Types of Variables

• Intervening Variable —sometimes called the

confounding variable. Links the IV and DV.
• In certain situations, the relationship between
an IV and DV cannot be established without the
intervention of another variable.
 Types of Variables

© Research Methodology, Third Edition by Ranjit Kumar (2011, SAGE)

 Example

© Research Methodology, Third Edition by Ranjit Kumar (2011, SAGE)

 Example

© Research Methodology, Third Edition by Ranjit Kumar (2011, SAGE)

 Example

© Research Methodology, Third Edition by Ranjit Kumar (2011, SAGE)

 Scales of Measurement

Measurement is the process of assigning numbers to

objects or observations; It is a form of quantification
expressed in numbers.

Scales define the type categories we use in measurement

and the selection of a scale has direct impact on our ability
to describe relationships between variables.
 Scales of Measurement
The Nominal Scale
• simply represents qualitative difference in the variable
measured
• can only tell us that a difference exists without the
possibility telling the direction or magnitude of the
difference
• e.g. majors in college, race, gender, occupation
 Scales of Measurement

The Ordinal Scale

• the categories that make up an ordinal scale form an
ordered sequence
• can tell us the direction of the difference but not the
magnitude
• e.g. coffee cup sizes, socioeconomic class, T-shirt sizes,
food preferences
 Scales of Measurement
The Interval Scale
• categories on an interval scale are organized
sequentially, and all categories are the same size
• we can determine the direction and the magnitude of a
difference
• May have an arbitrary zero (convenient point of
reference)
• e.g. temperature in Fahrenheit, time in seconds
 Scales of Measurement

The Ratio Scale

• consists of equal, ordered categories anchored by a
zero point that is not arbitrary but meaningful
(representing absence of a variable
• allows us to determine the direction, the magnitude,
and the ratio of the difference
• e.g. reaction time, number of errors on a test
 Levels of Measurement

Knowing the level of measurement

helps you decide how to interpret the
data from that variable.
Knowing the level of measurement
helps you decide what statistical
analysis is appropriate on the values
that were assigned.
It's important to recognize that there
is a hierarchy implied in the level of
measurement idea.
Important consideration in formulating a research
problem:

• The use of concepts

• The construction of hypotheses
 Hypothesis

• A conjectural statement of the relationship between

two or more variables.
• A proposition, condition or principle which is assumed,
perhaps without belief in order to draw out its logical
consequences and by this method to test its accord
with facts which are known or maybe determined.
• A proposition that is stated in testable form and that
predicts a particular relationship between two or more
variables.
• Is written in such a way that it can be proven or
disproven by valid and reliable data.
 Hypothesis

• A tentative answer to the research question.

• It is haunch.
• A possible explanation for a cause.
• It may be proved to be correct and in correct.
1. It is a tentative proposition
2. Its validity is unknown
3. It specifies a relationship between two or more
variables
 Functions of Hypothesis
• The formulation of the hypothesis provide a study with
focus. It tells you what specific aspects of a research
problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells you that data to collect and what not
to collect, thereby providing focus.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis
enhances objectivity in a study.
• A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation
of theory. It enables you to specifically conclude what
is true or what is false.
Process of Testing Hypothesis
 Characteristics of a Hypothesis

• A hypothesis should be simple, specific and

conceptually clear
Example:
The average age of the male students in this class is higher
than that of the female students
 Characteristics of a Hypothesis

• A hypothesis should be capable of verification.

• A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of
knowledge .
• A hypothesis should be operationalisable.
Types of Hypothesis
 Types of Hypothesis

• The hypothesis the researcher wants to test is called

the alternative hypothesis H1.
• The opposite of the alternative hypothesis is the null
hypothesis H0 (the status quo)(no difference between
the sample and the population, or between samples).
• The objective is to DISPROVE the null hypothesis.
 End!
Thank you
Lesson 4: Concepts, Variables, Indicators and Measurement
Dr. Racidon P. Bernarte
 Mind Exercise
Lesson 4: Concepts, Variables, Indicators and Measurement
Dr. Racidon P. Bernarte
Identify the major variables

Students of different ages were

given the same jigsaw puzzle to
put together. They were timed to
see how long it took to finish the
puzzle.
 What was the independent variable?

•Ages of the students

• Different ages were tested by the scientist
 What was the dependent variable?

•The time it to put the puzzle together

• The time was observed and measured by
the scientist
 What was a controlled variable?

•Same puzzle
• All of the participants were tested with the same
puzzle.
• It would not have been a fair test if some had an easy
30 piece puzzle and some had a harder 500 piece
puzzle.
Identify the major variables

An investigation was done with an

electromagnetic system made from a battery and
wire wrapped around a nail. Different sizes of nails
were used. The number of paper clips the
electromagnet could pick up was measured.
 Independent variable:

•Sizes of nails
• These were changed by the scientist
 Dependent variable:

•Number of paper clips picked up

• The number of paper clips observed and
counted (measured)
 Controlled variables:

• Battery, wire, type of nail

• None of these items were changed
Identify the major variables

The higher the

temperature of water,
the faster an egg will
boil.
• Independent variable – temperature of water
• Dependent variable – time to cook an egg
• Controlled variable – type of egg
Identify the major variables
The temperature of
water was measured at
different depths of a
pond.
• Independent variable – depth of the water
• Dependent variable – temperature
• Controlled variable – thermometer
 Assignment
Lesson 4: Concepts, Variables, Indicators and Measurement
Dr. Racidon P. Bernarte
Based on your identify possible research topics,
identify the major variables and the
measurement scale to be used. Formulate
hypothesis.
Research Independent Controlled Dependent Scale of
Problem Variable Variable Variable Measurement