THE

CONTROLLER
OPERATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Introduction Of Controller Operation
 Control Modes
 On-Off Control
 Proportional Control
 Proportional – Integral Control
 Proportional – Integral – Derivatives Control
 Introduction to Fuzzy Logic
 Fuzzy Sets
 Membership Function
 Application of Fuzzy Logic
 Fuzzy Logic Microcontroller
 Conclusion
INTRODUCTION OF THE
CONTROL OPERATION
 Controller is an element of closed-loop systems that processes information needed to perform
the decision-making function
 The input applied to the controller is the error signal
 It calculates changes need in the controlled variable to compensate for disturbances that upset
the process
 It also responds to these changes by providing an output signal that drives the actuator to alter
the controlled variable until the error signal is reduced to zero
e(t) = set points – feedback signal
CONTROL MODES
 Figure below shows the controller representation
CONTROL MODES
 There are four control modes of operation that are commonly performed by the controller
section of a closed-loop system:
1. On-Off
2. Proportional
3. Proportional-Integral
4. Proportional-Integral-Derivative
 ON-OFF CONTROLLER

 On-Off Controller is the most basic type of control system.

 It is also referred to as the two position, or bang-bang control.
 It has two output state:

1. Fully Off
2. Fully On
 One state is used when the controlled variable is above the desired set point.
 One other state is when the controlled is below the set point.
HOME HEATING SYSTEM
 HOME HEATING SYSTEM

 The thermostat is the measurement device.

 When the room temperature(controlled variable) falls below the setting point, the thermostat closes
the switch that is connect to a fuel valve in the furnace.
 When the switch is closed, the valve is fully opened.

 Furnace turns on and begins to generate heat.

 When room temperature rises above the setting point, the thermostat opens the switch connected to
the furnace fuel valve.
 An open switch closes the fuel valve to extinguish the flame.

 When furnace is off, the temperature in the room begins to fall.

 When temperature gone low enough, the furnace turns back on.
GRAPH ILLUSTRATING OPERATIONS OF THERMOSTAT AND
FURNACE FUEL VALVE
 Since the controlled variable must deviate from the set point to cause control action, the process
response will continually cycle. The cycling occurs because of two factors:
1. Process disturbances cause the output to deviate from the set point.
2. The corrective action of the On-Off controller cannot adjust the output to exactly match the
process demand. Instead, by being either fully on or fully off, the actuator’s response is too large
to return the process to the set point. The temperature is said to oscillate as it continually rises
above and below the set point.
 The inherent cycle condition is detrimental to most final correcting devices, such as fuel valve,
pumps, relays etc.
 By turning the output on and off so frequently, the rapid oscillation wears equipment and shortens
its life.
 To prevent rapid cycling, the time between the oscillation can be lengthened by adding an On-Off
differential gap the controller function which also referred to as deadband,
 The differential gap forces the controlled variable to move above or below the set point by a
specified amount before the controlled action will change again.
 Differential gap is defined as the smallest change on the controlled variable that causes the value to
shift from on to off, or off to on.
 Figure 3-4 illustrates the differential gap function added to the thermostat device.

 The temperature must rise 2 degrees above the set point before the furnace turns off.

 To turn the furnace back on, the temperature must fall 2 degrees below the set point.

 Therefore the differential gap for the thermostat is 4 degrees.

  The differential gap is also expressed as a percentage of the full range of the controlled device. For
example, the temperature range on a typical home thermostat is between 40 and 90 degrees.
Therefore, the full range is 50 degrees (90 – 40 = 50). A temperature variance of 4 degrees
represents 8 percent of full control range, because

% Differential Gap (Deadband) =

= 4/50
= 0.08 or 8%
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL
 The output operate linearly anywhere between fully on and fully off
 Output changes proportionally to the input error signal
 The greater the error, more output responds
 It returns the controlled variable to the desired setpoint value without rapid cycling of On-Off
control
EXAMPLE (FURNACE)
CONTROLLER
AMPLIFICATION
 The controller can amplify the amount at which its output changes in proportion the change
applied to its input.
 The magnitude of the amplification is adjustable
 Amplification by a proportional controller is referred to
1. Proportional gain
2. Proportional band
PROPORTIONAL GAIN
 The ratio of change in output to change in input
PROPORTIONAL BAND
 The percentage change in the controlled variable that causes the final control element to go
through 100 percent of its range.

 Narrow/small proportional band -> Quick response

 Larger proportional band -> Slow response
 A narrow proportional band has a tendency make

the system oscillate

 Too narrow/small proportional band cause

the oscillation not stop

 Proportional band is the inverse of the proportional gain.
STEADY-STATE ERROR
 It is the difference between the set point and the measured value

 To reduce the steady-state error or offset is by increasing the gain of the proportional operational
amplifier which decrease the proportional band. It also speed up the response. But increasing the
gain only to the value before instability occurs.

 Factors that affect offset:

1. Load or demand on the process
2. The low gain or wide proportional band of the controller
3. The set point at which the controller is set
 PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL CONTROL

 The integral (or reset) mode of control is designed to eliminate the offset inherent to proportional-mode control.

 It develops a control signal that depends on the absolute value of the offset.

 The integral mode does not function by itself.

 It is used along with the proportional control mode in the controller section of a close-loop system.

 When an error signal first appears, the controller is tuned so that the proportional- control signal returns the process
to the desired control point.
 This control is immediate and fast acting.

 If a deviation between the set point and controlled variable is present after the operation of the proportional control
mode is completed, an additional corrective signal is required, which is supplied by the integral control mode
function.
 A small corrective action is developed slowly to reduce the deviation to zero only after it is certain that there is a
definite steady-state error.
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL MODE CONTROL
SYSTEM
 Integral action continues to reset the amplifier gain until the process variable equals the set point
value, it is also referred to as the reset mode of control.
 The proportional-integral control mode is used in application where load disturbances occur
frequently and set point changes are infrequent.
 It is also used load changes are slow, to allow enough time to elapse before it is necessary for the
integral function to aid the proportional operations.
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE CONTROL

 The term derivative refers to the rate of change. A derivative controller produces an output that is proportional to the rate that
the error signal changes.
 If the error signal changes very rapidly, the derivative output is large.

 When the error signal is changing slowly, the derivative output is small.

 If error signal is stable, the derivative output is zero.

 Function of a derivative controller is to provide a proportional correction to a changing error signal

 For example, if the error signal gap increases, the derivative mode control gives boost to the system to stop the error from
increasing any further.
 The faster the error signal increases, the larger the boost.

 When the error signal gap decreases, the derivative mode control provides braking action.

 The faster the error gap closes, the stronger the braking action.

 Braking action reduces overshoot and dampens out any oscillations of the controlled variable.
PROPORTIONAL-INTEGRAL-DERIVATIVE MODE CONTROL
SYSTEM
FUZZY LOGIC
FUZZY LOGIC
 Introduction.
 Fuzzy set.
 Membership function
INTRODUCTION
 Introduce in 1965 by Lotfi A. Zadeh.
 Getting computers to make decisions like a human reasoning.
 One of the method that based on ‘degrees of truth’ rather than usual Boolean logic ‘true or
false (0 or 1).
 Fuzzy logic is the base for the computer modern.
 Fuzzy logic needs fuzzy set and fuzzy rules.
FUZZY SET
 Key element of fuzzy logic is the fuzzy set.
 Fuzzy set is related item are grouped together in crisp set.
 Crisp sets is very restrictive and often impractical.
DIFFERENT BETWEEN FUZZY
AND CRIPS SET
YES (1)
Crisp
NO (0)

(1)

Fuzzy (0.8)

(0.4)

(0)
GRAPH BETWEEN FUZZY AND
CRIPS

T o o C lo se
C lo se
ABS

N o t to c lo se
Too Close

Far
ABS
Far

0 1
0 1
Crips Set
Fuzzy set
GRAPH BETWEEN FUZZY AND
CRIPS SET

T o o c lo se
N o t to c lo se C lo se
ABS
Far

120%

100%

80%

A x is T itle
60%

40%

20%

0%
0 1

Crips set Fuzzy Set

MEMBERSHIP FUNCTIONS
 The binary crips sets have degrees of membership either 0 or 1.
 The variable fuzzy set has degrees of membership range in between 0 to 1.
 The fuzzy type of membership function provides a method of dealing with gradual changes.
 The fuzzy Rules based system.
 Fuzzifier
 Inferencing
 Defuzzifier
Input Crisp
Fuzzy rule
Value
base

Fuzzifier Inferencing Defuzzifier

Fuzzy Sets Fuzzy Sets

Output
Crisp Value
OTHER APPLICATION – ABS
(AUTOMATIC BRAKING
SYSTEM)
 It was adopted to effectively prevent the wheels from locking, braking more effectively.
 To solve the problem where drivers fail to apply brakes on time.
 Can reduce speed automatically due to obstacles detection.
 With the connection of ultrasonic sensors in the vehicle.
 Very suitable in case of tight parking, heavy traffic conditions, emergency situation and
restricted areas.
 The system has high values of braking deceleration, short stopping time and high braking
torque.
FUZZY LOGIC
MICROCONTROLLER
 There are many methods used by computing devices to perform fuzzy logic control.
 One of the technique used by a fuzzy microcontroller chip shown below :
EXPLAINATION :
 There are 16 fuzzifiers, each one store a fuzzy membership function of a production rule.
 Since there are 16 seperate fuzzifiers, 16 different terms can be stored for a rule.
 A one-of-eight selector allow each fuzzier to input data from any one of eight variable input signal,
such as the rod inclination or velocity.
 Each fuzzier evaluates the applied input and determines a degree of membership.
 The output of the fuzzier then applied to the minimum comparator for minimal comparisons.
 Once the minimum value for a rule is found, it is stored in a temporary maximum register in the
maximum comparator.
 After the first rule is processed , the rule memory transfer membership function data of the next
production rule to the fuzziers.
 The fuzzification procedure is repeated and another minimum degree-of-membership value is
stored in the minimum comparator.
 After processing up to 64 rules that can be stored in the rule memory section, the maximum
comparator determines which rules have valid degrees of memberships.
 By using sum-of-product calculations, an optimal action value is passed on to the output devices.
 All of the valid action value commands (antecedent blocks) used in the calculations were
transferred along with their corresponding consequent block rules from the fuzzier to the minimum
comparator, and then to the maximum comparator.
 Once all of the rules have been processed and the command information transferred to the output
register, the device begin entering the next group of inputs.
CONCLUSION
 Fuzzy logic get its name from the way it operates. It accepts vague input data and transforms it
into precise mathematical form (used by a machine to perform solving action).
 The purpose of Fuzzy logic theory was to develop mathematical problem-solving models that
copied the methods used by human. Thus, people can gather imprecise and large information
from their environment and use the technique of approximate reasoning to make accurate
decisions quickly and efficiently.
 In electronics control, it was found that these technique resulted in faster, smoother, more
efficient and easier to design solutions.
 Fuzzy logic was used inside camera to remove the unwanted vibration, used in automotive
applications such as anti-lock braking systems and automatic transmission, and used in industrial
applications where it's use will likely to increase.
 Fuzzy technology can be applied through computer or industrial programmable controller
software, dedicated controller or fuzzy microprocessors.
 Muhammad Rusli
 Muhammad Iskandar
 Muhammad Zakwanul Mu’minin
 Muhammad Irfan Fadillah
 Muhammad Shukary
 Muhammad Syafee