Building Materials and

Constructions
MODULE 03
LINTELS AND ARCHES
ARCH
An Arch is a structure which is constructed to span across an opening. It generally
consists of small wedge-shaped units which are joined together with mortar.

Elements of an arch
Intrados:- This is the inner curve of the
arch.
Extra dose or back:- This is the
external curve of an arch.
Voussor:- These are the wedge shaped
units forming the courses of an arch.
Springer:- This is the first voussoir at
springing level on either side of an arch
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Crown:- This is the highest point of the
extrados
Keystone:- This is Wedge Shaped unit at the
Crown of an Arch. It is sometimes made
prominent by making it of a larger section
and projecting it below and above the
outlines of an Arch.
Springing line:- This is the imaginary
horizontal line joining the two Springing
points.
Rise:- This is the clear vertical distance
between the highest point on the intrados
and springing line.
Haunch:- This is the lower half portion of
an Arch between the crown and the
Skewback.
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Types Of Arches
The various types of arches can be classified as follows for convenience
 Classification of arches according to shape
 Classification of arches according to workmanship
 Classification of arches according to materials of
construction.

Classification of arches according to shape:

1. Flat Arch:
 Flat arch, also known as straight or Camber Arch, is
laid with its bed joints radiating to Centre.
 When used over openings of Door or window, the flat
arch at similar to a lintel.
 The skewback is made to rest in an inclined position
so as to make an angle of 600 with the springing line.
 Flat arches are not strong as compared with other
forms. 4
2. Segmental Arch
The centre of the Arch institute at below the springing line.
This is the common type of Arch used for buildings.
The thrust transferred to the abutment is in an incline
direction.
3. Semi-circular Arch
The centre of the arch lies on the spinning line and the
shape of curve of arch is a semi-circle.
As the skewback is horizontal, the thrust transfer to the
abutment is perfectly in vertical direction.

Asst. Prof sowmya L 5

4. Pointed Arch
 This type of Arch consists of two curves which are
meeting at the apex of triangles that Triangle formed
maybe equilateral isosceles as shown in the figure.
 The centre of the arch may be on or below the springing
line and they may be in between or outside the
springing points.
 In equilateral arch, the centre will be on the springing
points.

5. Relieving arch:
 This Arch is constructed over a wooden joist or a flat
arch as shown in figure.
 Thus it relieves the joist or flat arch from carrying the
load. The end of a relieving arch should be kept
sufficiently inside the solid wall.
 Thus the span of the relieving arch will be equal to the clear
span of the opening plus twice the bearing of wooden joist
which is being relieved from taking the load. 6
Based on type of workmanship
1. Rough Arch
2. Axed Arch
3. Gauged Arches

1. Rough Arches:
This arches is made from ordinary bricks which neither cut nor dressed to the
wedge shape.
If the bricks or not dresses, the mortar joints are also wider. Therefore the extra
dose is wider than the intrados.
It does not gives a good appearance.

2. Axed Arches
In this type of Arch, bricks are dressed or cut roughly with the help of axe to give
them rough wedge shape.
Rough axed bricks are used
Thickness of the mortar joints varies from 3 mm to 6 mm.

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3. Gauged Arches
This type of arches is constructed from bricks which are finally cut
by means of a wire saw.
The surfaces of bricks are finished with the file.
The mortar joints are or as thin as 1.50 mm to 0.75 mm.
This arch is used where a fine finish of the surface is required.

Classification of arches according to materials of construction.

1. Stone arches
2. Brick arches
3. Concrete arches

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1. Stone arches
Stone arches maybe a rubble masonry arches and ashlar
masonry arches
Rubble masonry arch is weak and hence it should not be
used over 1 m span of the arch due to the irregular shape
of stone
In ashlar arches stones are used with fully of dresses
with proper size and shape.
Stones may be used as header and stretcher alternatively
Stone arches are also called flat arches.

2. Brick arches
These arches can be constructed from ordinary bricks or
purpose made bricks or soft bricks
The purpose made bricks or special breaks of different
sizes which are suitable for arch work. They are used for
good quality of work.
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3.Concrete Arches
These arches can be constructed of the precast cement concrete blocks for Monolithic concrete.
The blocks or similar to stones and are prepared by Casting cement concrete in specially prepared
moulds.
The Monolithic concrete arches are constructed from cast in situ concrete and suitable for big spans.
Hence they are employed in the construction of culverts and bridges.

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Balconies
A horizontal projection, cantilevered or otherwise including parapet to
serve as passage or sit out place.
Functions:
• Balconies are a common feature in
tall buildings especially when the
building is facing an Ocean or lake.
• The key function of a balcony is to
provide accessibility to the outdoor
environment
• They can be design focus for both
the interior or exterior of a house
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• Balconies can function as a room
Extension and provide outdoor living
space for rooms located on upper
stories.
• They often beneficial in reducing
wind loads.
• Balcony increases the amount of
space offered by the room and can
make a room seems larger than it is.

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Canopy
It is defined as a cantilever projection from the face of the wall over the building at the
lintel level or slab.

• A canopy is an overhead roof or else

a structure over which a fabric or
metal covering is attached, able to
provide shade or shelter.
• A canopy can also be a tent, generally
without a Floor.
• Architectural canopy include
projections giving protection from the
weather or merely decoration.

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Floors
In order to subdivide the portion between the plinth level or basement level and roof level,
the solid constructions are carried out these constructions are known as the floors and the
exposed top surfaces of floors are termed as the floorings.
Requirement of good floor:
It should be durable.
It should be easy to clean.
As far as possible it should be noiseless.
It should have a good appearance
It should be free from dampness
It should be fire resistance
It should have low maintenance cost
It should not be very costly.
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Components Of Ground Floor
A floor is composed of two essential components:
Sub-floor, base course or floor base
The floor base is a structural component, which supports
the floor covering. For the ground floors, the object of floor
base is to give proper support to the covering so that it does
not settle, and to provide damp resistance and thermal
insulation.

Floor Covering, or simply, flooring

Ground floors may either rest directly on the ground, or
may be supported a little distance above the ground. The floors
supported directly on the ground are known as solid floors
while the floors supported above the ground level are called
suspended floors. Suspended floors are generally made of
timber.
Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 15
Selection Of Flooring Material
Following factors are to be carefully considered before selecting the material for the
flooring of a particular building:
Appearance
Cleaning
Comfort
Cost
Damp resistance
Durability
Fire resistance
Hardness maintenance
Noise
Slipperiness

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Laying of Concrete
The thickness of concrete layer is about 40mm and it is carried out in proportion of 1 part
of cement, 2 parts of sand and 4 parts of coarse aggregate by volume.
The size of coarse aggregate varies from 20 mm to 6 mm.
The square or diagonal lines are marked on the concrete surfaces when it is still wet.
This type of construction is known as the Indian Patent Stone and is widely used for cheap
residential buildings.
At places where hard wearing surface is required, the granolithic finish is carried out
above the layer of cement concrete.
The granolithic concrete is composed of cement, sand and especially of selected
aggregates.
After laying the concrete, the surface is tamped and floated with wooden floats.
The surface is then finally smoothened by means of steel trowel.

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 17

Mosaic Flooring
Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of broken tiles of
china glazed or of cement, or of marble, arranged in different
pattern.
 These pieces are cut to desired shapes and sizes, A concrete
base is prepared as in the case of concrete flooring, and over
it 5 to 8 cm thick lime-surkhi mortar is spread and levelled.
On this, a 3 mm thick cementing material, in the form of
paste of two parts of slaked lime, one part of powdered
marble and one part of puzzolana material, is spread and is
left to dry for about 4 hours.
 Thereafter, small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of
different colours are arranged in definite patterns and
hammered into the cementing layer.

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 18

Marble Flooring
It is a superior type of flooring, used in bath-rooms and kitchens of
residential buildings, and in hospitals, sanitoriums, and temples etc.
where extra cleanliness is an essential requirement.
 Marble slabs may be laid in different sizes, usually in rectangular or
square shapes.
The base concrete is prepared in the same manner as that for concrete
flooring.
Over the base concrete, 20 mm thick bedding mortar of either 1:4
cement: sand mix or 1 (lime putty): 1 (surkhi): 1 coarse sand mix is
spread under the area of each individual slab.
 The marble slab is then laid over it, gently pressed with wooden
mallet and levelled.
It is gently pushed with wooden mallet so that cement pastes oozes
out from the joint which should be as thin as possible (paper thick).
The oozed out cement is cleaned with cloth.
The paved area is properly cured for about a week.
Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 19
Tiled Flooring
Tiled flooring is constructed from square, hexagonal or other shapes, made
of clay (pottery), cement concrete or terrazzo.
These are available in different sizes and thicknesses.
 These are commonly used in residential houses, offices, schools, hospitals
and other public buildings, as an alternative to terrazzo flooring, especially
where the floor is to be laid quickly.
The method of laying tiled flooring is similar to that for flag stone flooring
except that greater care is required.
Before laying the tiles, neat cement slurry is spread over the bedding mortar
Before laying the tiles, thin paste of cement is applied on their sides, so that
the tiles have a thin coat of cement mortar over the entire perimeter surface.
Next day, the joints between adjacent tiles are cleaned of loose mortar etc.
to a depth of 5 mm, using wire brush, and then grouted with cement slurry
of the same colour shade as that of the tiles.
The slurry is also applied over the flooring in thin coat.
The flooring is then cured for 7 days, and then grinding and polishing is
done in the same manner as that for terrazzo flooring.
Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 20
Roofs
A roof is defined as the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a
framework to give protection to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind, etc.

Following are the requirements of a well-planned roof:

 It should be durable against the adverse effects of various agencies such as wind,
rain, sun, etc.
 It should grant the desirable insulation against sound and heat.
 It should be structurally stable and sound and it should be capable the loads likely to
come over it.
 It should be well-drained.
 It should have efficient water-proofing arrangement.
 It should be fire resistant.

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Types Of Roofs
The selection of the type of roof depends upon the shape or plan of the building, climatic
conditions of the area and type of constructional materials available.
The roofs are classified into the following three categories
(i) Pitched or sloping roofs
Pitched roofs have sloping top surface. These are suitable in those areas where
rainfall/snowfall is very heavy.
(ii) Flat or terraced roofs
Flat roofs are equally applicable to buildings of any shape and size.
(iii) Curved roofs.
Curved roofs have their top surface curved. Such roofs are provided to give architectural
effects.

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Pitched Roofs
A roof with sloping surface is known as a pitched roof. Pitched roofs are basically of the
following forms:
Lean-to-roof
Gable roof
Hip roof
Gambrel roof
Mansard or curb roof
Deck roof.

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various elements of pitched roof. These elements are defined below:
Ridge. It is defined as the apex line of the sloping roof. It is thus the apex of the angle formed by
the termination of the inclined surfaces at the top of a slope.
Eaves. The lower edge of the inclined roof
surface is called eaves. From the lower edge
(eaves), the rain water from the roof surface
drops down.
Hip. It is the ridge formed by the
intersection of two sloping surfaces, where
the exterior angle is greater than 180°.
Valley. It is a reverse of a hip. It is formed
by the intersection of two roof surfaces,
making an external angle less than 180°.
Battens:- These are thin strips of wood,
called scantlings, which are nailed to the
rafters for laying roof materials.

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 24

Trussed Roofs
When the span exceeds 4.80 m and when there are no inside supporting walls or partitions for
the purlins, the framed structures, known as the trusses, are used.
The spacing of trusses depends upon the load on the roof, position of cross-walls, span and
material of the truss. But the spacing is generally 3 m for wooden trusses
The trusses carry the ridge piece and purlins on which the common rafters rest. The trusses
span in the same direction in which the common rafters run.
Thus the roof in this system consists of
the following three components:
(i) Rafters to support the roofing material;
(ii) Purlins to provide intermediate
support to the rafters
(iii)Trusses to grant support to the ends of
purlins.

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 25

King-post Truss
In this type of truss, the central post,
known as a king-post, forms a support
for the tie beam.
 The inclined members, known as the
struts, prevent the principal rafters from
bending in the middle.
A king post truss roof is shown in fig.
 A king post truss is suitable for roofs
of span varying from 5 m to 8 m.

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 26

 Queen-post Truss
This truss differs from a king-post truss in
having two vertical members, known as the
queen-posts.
The upper ends of the queen-posts are kept
in position by means of a horizontal
member, known as a straining beam.
 A straining sill is introduced on the tie
beam between the queen-posts to counteract
the thrust of struts.
The additional purlins are supported on the
queen-posts.
 A queen-post truss roof is shown in fig
which is suitable for roof of spans varying
from 8 m to 12 m.
Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 27
Steel Truss
Steel trusses are more economical
for larger spans
Steel trusses are most commonly
used these days for all spans since
they are
I. More economical
II. Easy to construct
III. Fire proof
IV. More rigid and
V. Permanent

Asst. Prof Pramod Kumar H V 28