Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System Organization
 Computer-System Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Special-Purpose Systems
 Computing Environments

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 Objectives
 To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems
components
 To provide coverage of basic computer system organization

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 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an interface between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware.
 Operating system goals:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use.

OS
User HW

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 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users, such as,…….
 Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper
use of the computer

 No universally accepted definition

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 Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM*, generally known as
firmware

 Initializates all aspects of system

 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

*EPROM: (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, is a type

of memory chip that retains its data when its power supply is switched off)

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 Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles

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 Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
 Each device controller has a local buffer.
 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an
interrupt.

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 Common Functions of Interrupts
 Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally,
through the interrupt vector*, which contains the addresses of
all the service routines.
 Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction.
 Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being
processed to prevent a lost interrupt.
 A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or
a user request.
 An operating system is interrupt driven.

*Array contains a unique indexes of devices given with the interrupt

request)

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 Interrupt Handling
 The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing
registers and the program counter.
 Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
 polling
 vectored interrupt system
(Refers to the text book)
 Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken
for each type of interrupt

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 Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly.

 Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile

storage capacity.
 Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording
material
 Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors.
 The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer.

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 Storage Hierarchy
 Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
 Speed
 Cost
 Volatility
 Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage.

some application of caching are used in the internet website

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

The higher levels are expensive but very fast and volatile devices

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 Performance of Various Levels of Storage

 Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or

implicit

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 Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

 Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent

value, no matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy

 Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in

hardware such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their
cache

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 Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs
so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running,
creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code
or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to
user

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

Q. Design a general algorithm to describe Transition from User to Kernel Mode?

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 Process Management

 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system.

Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of
next instruction to execute
 Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until
completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system
running concurrently on one or more CPUs
 Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads

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 Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
 Creating and deleting both user and system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management
 All data in memory before and after processing
 All instructions in memory in order to execute
 Memory management determines what is in memory when
 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
 Memory management activities
 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move
into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
 Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media

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 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of time.
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges/based on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-
write)

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 I/O Subsystem
 One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities/characteristics of
hardware devices from the user
 I/O subsystem responsible for
 Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts
of data in faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
 General device-driver interface
 Drivers for specific hardware devices

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 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to
resources defined by the OS (list some examples)
 Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft,
theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do
what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated
number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine
access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls
managed, then also associated with each process, file
 Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with more
rights (Privilege escalation is the act of exploiting a bug or design fault in a software
application to gain access to resources which normally would have been protected from
an application or user. The result is that the application performs actions with more
privileges than intended by the application developer or system administrator), two types
of Privilege escalation Horizontal privilege escalation and Vertical privilege escalation

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 Computing Environments

 Traditional computer
 Blurring over time
 Office environment
 PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to
mainframe or minicomputers providing batch and
timesharing
 Now portals allowing networked and remote systems
access to same resources
 Home networks
 Used to be single system, then modems
 Now firewalled, networked

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 Computing Environments (Cont.)

 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by
clients
 Compute-server provides an interface to client to request
services (i.e. database)
 File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve
files

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 Peer-to-Peer Computing
 Another model of distributed system
 P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
 Instead all nodes are considered peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central lookup service on network,
or
 Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for
service via discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and Gnutella

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 Web-Based Computing
 Web has become everywhere
 PCs most prevalent devices
 More devices becoming networked to allow web access
 New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar
servers: load balancers
 Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have
evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which can be clients and
servers

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End of Chapter 1