Statistics for Managers

Using Microsoft® Excel

5th Edition

Chapter 5
Some Important Discrete Probability
Distributions

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-1
 Learning Objectives

In this chapter, you will learn:

 The properties of a probability distribution
 To compute the expected value and variance of a
probability distribution
 To calculate the covariance and understand its use in
finance
 To compute probabilities from the binomial, Poisson,
and hypergeometric distributions
 How to use these distributions to solve business
problems

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-2
 Definitions
Random Variables
 A random variable represents a possible
numerical value from an uncertain event.
 Discrete random variables produce outcomes
that come from a counting process (i.e.
number of classes you are taking).
 Continuous random variables produce
outcomes that come from a measurement (i.e.
your annual salary, or your weight).

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-3
 Discrete Random Variables
Examples
Discrete random variables can only assume a countable number of
values
 Examples:
 Roll a die twice
 Let X be the number of times 4 comes up (then X could be 0,
1, or 2 times)

 Toss a coin 5 times.

 Let X be the number of heads (then X = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5)

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-4
 Definitions
Random Variables

Random
Variables

Ch. 5 Discrete Continuous Ch. 6

Random Variable Random Variable

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-5
 Definitions
Probability Distribution
 A probability distribution for a discrete random
variable is a mutually exclusive listing of all possible
numerical outcomes for that variable and a particular
probability of occurrence associated with each outcome.

Number of Classes Taken Probability

2 0.2
3 0.4
4 0.24
5 0.16

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-6
 Definitions
Probability Distribution
Experiment: Toss 2 Coins. Let X = # heads.
Probability Distribution

X Value Probability

Probability
0 1/4 = .25 .50

1 2/4 = .50 .25

2 1/4 = .25 0 1 2 X

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-7
 Discrete Random Variables
Expected Value
 Expected Value (or mean) of a discrete distribution
(Weighted Average)
N
  E(X)   X i P( X i )
i 1

 Example: Toss 2 coins, X = # of heads, X Value Probability

0 1/4 = .25
Compute expected value of X:
1 2/4 = .50
2 1/4 = .25
E(X) = (0)(.25) + (1)(.50) + (2)(.25)
= 1.0

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-8
 Discrete Random Variables
Expected Value
Number of Probability
 Compute the expected
Classes Taken
value for the given
2 0.2
distribution:
3 0.4
4 0.24
5 0.16

E(X) = 2(.2) + 3(.4) + 4(.24) + 5(.16) = 3.36

So, the average number of classes taken is 3.36.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-9
 Discrete Random Variables
Dispersion
 Variance of a discrete random variable
N
σ   [X i  E(X)]2 P(X i )
2

i 1

 Standard Deviation of a discrete random variable

N
σ  σ2   [X
i 1
i  E(X)]2 P(X i )

where:
E(X) = Expected value of the discrete random variable X
Xi = the ith outcome of X
P(Xi) = Probability of the ith occurrence of X
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-10
 Discrete Random Variables
Dispersion
 Example: Toss 2 coins, X = # heads, compute
standard deviation (recall that E(X) = 1)
N
σ σ  2
 i
[X 
i 1
E(X)]2
P(X i )

σ  (0  1)2 (.25)  (1  1)2 (.50)  (2  1)2 (.25)  .50  .707

Possible number of heads = 0, 1, or 2

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-11
 Covariance

 The covariance measures the strength of the

linear relationship between two numerical
random variables X and Y.
 A positive covariance indicates a positive
relationship.
 A negative covariance indicates a negative
relationship.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-12
 Covariance

 Covariance formula:

N
σ XY   [ X i  E ( X )][(Yi  E (Y )] P( X iYi )
i 1

where: X = discrete variable X

Xi = the ith outcome of X
Y = discrete variable Y
Yi = the ith outcome of Y
P(XiYi) = probability of occurrence of the condition affecting
the ith outcome of X and the ith outcome of Y

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-13
 Investment Returns
The Mean
Consider the return per $1000 for two types of
investments.
Investment
Economic Passive Fund X Aggressive Fund Y
P(XiYi) Condition

0.2 Recession - $25 - $200

0.5 Stable Economy + $50 + $60

0.3 Expanding Economy + $100 + $350

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-14
 Investment Returns
The Mean

E(X) = μX = (-25)(.2) +(50)(.5) + (100)(.3) = 50

E(Y) = μY = (-200)(.2) +(60)(.5) + (350)(.3) = 95

Interpretation: Fund X is averaging a $50.00 return

and fund Y is averaging a $95.00 return per $1000
invested.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-15
 Investment Returns
Standard Deviation
σ X  (-25  50)2 (.2)  (50  50)2 (.5)  (100  50)2 (.3)
 43.30

σ Y  (-200  95) 2 (.2)  (60  95) 2 (.5)  (350  95) 2 (.3)

 193.71

Interpretation: Even though fund Y has a higher

average return, it is subject to much more variability
and the probability of loss is higher.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-16
 Investment Returns
Covariance

σ XY  (-25  50)(-200  95)(.2)  (50  50)(60  95)(.5)

 (100  50)(350  95)(.3)
 8250

Interpretation: Since the covariance is large and

positive, there is a positive relationship between the
two investment funds, meaning that they will likely
rise and fall together.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-17
 The Sum of Two Random
Variables: Measures
 Expected Value: E ( X  Y )  E ( X )  E (Y )

 Variance: Var( X  Y )  σ 2X Y  σ 2X  σY2  2σ XY

 Standard deviation: σ X Y  σ 2
X Y

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-18
 Portfolio Expected Return and
Expected Risk
 Investment portfolios usually contain several
different funds (random variables)
 The expected return and standard deviation
of two funds together can now be calculated.
 Investment Objective: Maximize return
(mean) while minimizing risk (standard
deviation).

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-19
 Portfolio Expected Return and
Expected Risk
 Portfolio expected return (weighted average return):

E(P)  w E ( X )  (1  w) E (Y )
 Portfolio risk (weighted variability)

σ P  w σ  (1  w ) σ  2w(1 - w)σ XY
2 2
X
2 2
Y

where w = portion of portfolio value in asset X

(1 - w) = portion of portfolio value in asset Y

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-20
 Portfolio Expect Return and
Expected Risk
Recall: Investment X: E(X) = 50 σX = 43.30
Investment Y: E(Y) = 95 σY = 193.21
σXY = 8250
Suppose 40% of the portfolio is in Investment X and 60% is in Investment Y:
E(P)  .4 (50)  (.6) (95 )  77

σ P  (.4)2 (43.30) 2  (.6)2 (193.21) 2  2(.4)(.6)(8250)

 133.04

 The portfolio return is between the values for investments X and Y

considered individually.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-21
 Probability Distribution
Overview
Probability
Distributions

Ch. 5 Discrete Continuous Ch. 6

Probability Probability
Distributions Distributions

Binomial Normal

Poisson Uniform

Hypergeometric Exponential

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-22
 The Binomial Distribution:
Properties
 A fixed number of observations, n
 ex. 15 tosses of a coin; ten light bulbs taken from a
warehouse
 Two mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
categories
 ex. head or tail in each toss of a coin; defective or not
defective light bulb; having a boy or girl
 Generally called “success” and “failure”
 Probability of success is p, probability of failure is 1 – p

 Constant probability for each observation

 ex. Probability of getting a tail is the same each time we
toss the coin

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-23
 The Binomial Distribution:
Properties
 Observations are independent
 The outcome of one observation does not affect the
outcome of the other
 Two sampling methods
 Infinite population without replacement
 Finite population with replacement

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-24
 Applications of the
Binomial Distribution
 A manufacturing plant labels items as either
defective or acceptable
 A firm bidding for contracts will either get a contract
or not
 A marketing research firm receives survey responses
of “yes I will buy” or “no I will not”
 New job applicants either accept the offer or reject it
 Your team either wins or loses the football game at
the company picnic

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-25
 The Binomial Distribution
Counting Techniques
 Suppose success is defined as flipping heads
at least two times out of three with a fair
coin. How many ways is success possible?
 Possible Successes: HHT, HTH, THH, HHH,
So, there are four possible ways.
 This situation is extremely simple. We need
a way of counting successes for more
complicated and less trivial situations.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-26
 Counting Techniques
Rule of Combinations
 The number of combinations of selecting X
objects out of n objects is:
n n!
n CX  
 X   X!(n  X)!
 

where:
n! =n(n - 1)(n - 2) . . . (2)(1)
X! = X(X - 1)(X - 2) . . . (2)(1)
0! = 1 (by definition)
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-27
 Counting Techniques
Rule of Combinations
 How many possible 3 scoop combinations could you
create at an ice cream parlor if you have 31 flavors
to select from?
 The total choices is n = 31, and we select X = 3.

 31 31! 31! 31  30  29  28!

31 C 3  
 3   3!(31  3)!  3!28!  3  2  1  28!  31  5  29  4495
 

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-28
 The Binomial Distribution
Formula
n!
P(X)  p X (1  p ) n  X
X!(n  X)!
P(X) = probability of X successes in n trials, Example: Flip a coin four
with probability of success p on each trial times, let x = # heads:
n=4
X = number of ‘successes’ in sample,
(X = 0, 1, 2, ..., n) p = 0.5
1 - p = (1 - .5) = .5
n = sample size (number of trials
or observations) X = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
p = probability of “success”

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-29
 The Binomial Distribution
Example
What is the probability of one success in five
observations if the probability of success is .1?
X = 1, n = 5, and p = .1

n!
P(X  1)  p X (1  p ) n  X
X!(n  X)!
5!
 (.1)1 (1  .1) 51
1!(5  1)!
 (5)(.1)(.9) 4
 .32805

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-30
 The Binomial Distribution
Example
Suppose the probability of purchasing a defective
computer is 0.02. What is the probability of
purchasing 2 defective computers is a lot of 10?
X = 2, n = 10, and p = .02
n!
P(X  2)  p X (1  p ) n  X
X!(n  X)!
10!
 (.02) 2 (1  .02)10 2
2!(10  2)!
 (45)(.0004)(.8508)
 .01531

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-31
 The Binomial Distribution
Shape
 The shape of the binomial P(X) n = 5 p = 0.1
.6
distribution depends on the .4
values of p and n .2
0
 Here, n = 5 and p = .1
0 1 2 3 4 5 X

P(X) n = 5 p = 0.5
.6
.4
.2
0
 Here, n = 5 and p = .5
0 1 2 3 4 5 X

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-32
 The Binomial Distribution
Using Binomial Tables
n = 10
x … p=.20 p=.25 p=.30 p=.35 p=.40 p=.45 p=.50
0 … 0.1074 0.0563 0.0282 0.0135 0.0060 0.0025 0.0010 10
1 … 0.2684 0.1877 0.1211 0.0725 0.0403 0.0207 0.0098 9
2 … 0.3020 0.2816 0.2335 0.1757 0.1209 0.0763 0.0439 8
3 … 0.2013 0.2503 0.2668 0.2522 0.2150 0.1665 0.1172 7
4 … 0.0881 0.1460 0.2001 0.2377 0.2508 0.2384 0.2051 6
5 … 0.0264 0.0584 0.1029 0.1536 0.2007 0.2340 0.2461 5
6 … 0.0055 0.0162 0.0368 0.0689 0.1115 0.1596 0.2051 4
7 … 0.0008 0.0031 0.0090 0.0212 0.0425 0.0746 0.1172 3
8 … 0.0001 0.0004 0.0014 0.0043 0.0106 0.0229 0.0439 2
9 … 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0005 0.0016 0.0042 0.0098 1
10 … 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0010 0

… p=.80 p=.75 p=.70 p=.65 p=.60 p=.55 p=.50 x

Examples:
n = 10, p = .35, x = 3: P(x = 3|n =10, p = .35) = .2522
n = 10, p = .75, x = 2: P(x = 2|n =10, p = .75) = .0004
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-33
 The Binomial Distribution
Characteristics
 Mean
μ  E(x)  np
 Variance and Standard Deviation

σ  np (1 - p )
2
σ np (1 - p )

Where n = sample size

p = probability of success
(1 – p) = probability of failure

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-34
 The Binomial Distribution
Characteristics
Examples P(X) n = 5 p = 0.1
.6
μ  np  (5)(.1)  0.5
.4
.2
σ  np (1 - p )  (5)(.1)(1  .1)
0
 0.6708 0 1 2 3 4 5 X

P(X) n = 5 p = 0.5
μ  np  (5)(.5)  2.5 .6
.4
σ  np (1 - p)  (5)(.5)(1  .5) .2
0
 1.118
0 1 2 3 4 5 X

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-35
 The Poisson Distribution
Definitions
 An area of opportunity is a continuous unit
or interval of time, volume, or such area in
which more than one occurrence of an event
can occur.

 ex. The number of scratches in a car’s paint

 ex. The number of mosquito bites on a person
 ex. The number of computer crashes in a day

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-36
 The Poisson Distribution
Properties
Apply the Poisson Distribution when:
 You wish to count the number of times an event occurs in a
given area of opportunity
 The probability that an event occurs in one area of opportunity is
the same for all areas of opportunity
 The number of events that occur in one area of opportunity is
independent of the number of events that occur in the other areas
of opportunity
 The probability that two or more events occur in an area of
opportunity approaches zero as the area of opportunity becomes
smaller
 The average number of events per unit is  (lambda)
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-37
 The Poisson Distribution
Formula

λ x
e λ
P(X) 
X!

where:
X = the probability of X events in an area of opportunity
 = expected number of events
e = mathematical constant approximated by 2.71828…

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-38
 The Poisson Distribution
Example
 Suppose that, on average, 5 cars enter a parking
lot per minute. What is the probability that in a
given minute, 7 cars will enter?
 So, X = 7 and λ = 5

e  λ λ x e 5 57
P(7)    0.104
X! 7!

 So, there is a 10.4% chance 7 cars will enter the

parking in a given minute.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-39
 The Poisson Distribution
Using Poisson Tables

0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
X

0 0.9048 0.8187 0.7408 0.6703 0.6065 0.5488 0.4966 0.4493 0.4066

1 0.0905 0.1637 0.2222 0.2681 0.3033 0.3293 0.3476 0.3595 0.3659
2 0.0045 0.0164 0.0333 0.0536 0.0758 0.0988 0.1217 0.1438 0.1647
3 0.0002 0.0011 0.0033 0.0072 0.0126 0.0198 0.0284 0.0383 0.0494
4 0.0000 0.0001 0.0003 0.0007 0.0016 0.0030 0.0050 0.0077 0.0111
5 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0004 0.0007 0.0012 0.0020
6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003
7 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Example: Find P(X = 2) if  = .50

e  λ λ X e 0.50 (0.50)2
P(X  2)    .0758
X! 2!

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-40
 The Poisson Distribution
Shape
0.70

 = .50 0.60

0.50

X P(X)
0.40

P(x)
0 0.6065 0.30

1 0.3033 0.20
2 0.0758
0.10
3 0.0126
0.00
4 0.0016 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5 0.0002 x
6 0.0000
7 0.0000 P(X = 2) = .0758

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-41
 The Poisson Distribution
Shape
 The shape of the Poisson Distribution depends
on the parameter  :
 = 0.50  = 3.00
0.70 0.25

0.60
0.20
0.50

0.15
0.40
P(x)

0.30 P(x) 0.10

0.20
0.05
0.10

0.00 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

x x

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-42
 The Hypergeometric
Distribution
 The binomial distribution is applicable
when selecting from a finite population with
replacement or from an infinite population
without replacement.

 The hypergeometric distribution is

applicable when selecting from a finite
population without replacement.

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-43
 The Hypergeometric
Distribution
 “n” trials in a sample taken from a finite
population of size N
 Sample taken without replacement
 Outcomes of trials are dependent
 Concerned with finding the probability of “X”
successes in the sample where there are “A”
successes in the population

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-44
 The Hypergeometric
Distribution
 A  N  A 
  
 X  n  X 
P( X ) 
N
 
n 

Where
N = population size
A = number of successes in the population
N – A = number of failures in the population
n = sample size
X = number of successes in the sample
n – X = number of failures in the sample
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-45
 The Hypergeometric Distribution
Characteristics
 The mean of the hypergeometric distribution is:
nA
μ  E(x) 
N

 The standard deviation is:

nA(N - A) N - n
σ 2

N N -1

N-n
Where N - 1 is called the “Finite Population Correction Factor”

from sampling without replacement from a finite population

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-46
 The Hypergeometric Distribution
Example
 Different computers are checked from 10 in the
department. 4 of the 10 computers have illegal
software loaded. What is the probability that 2 of the
3 selected computers have illegal software loaded?
 So, N = 10, n = 3, A = 4, X = 2

 A  N  A   4  6 
     
 X  n  X   2 1  (6)(6)
P(X  2)           0.3
 
N  
10 120
   
n  3 
   

The probability that 2 of the 3 selected computers

have illegal software loaded is .30, or 30%.
Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-47
 Chapter Summary
In this chapter, we have
 Addressed the probability of a discrete random
variable
 Defined covariance and discussed its application
in finance
 Discussed the Binomial distribution
 Reviewed the Poisson distribution
 Discussed the Hypergeometric distribution

Statistics for Managers Using Microsoft Excel, 5e © 2008 Pearson Prentice-Hall, Inc. Chap 5-48