Chapter Two

Protection principles
and components
1
 2.1. Protective Zone…
 Regions (zones) of power system that can be protected adequately with
fault recognition and removal resulting in disconnection of a minimum
amount of equipment.
 Requirements:
 All power system elements must be encompassed by at least one zone
 Zone of protection must overlap to prevent any system element from
being unprotected

Fault F1: trip B1 & B2 Fault F3: trip B7

Fault F2: Trip B1, B2, B3 &B4 Fault F3: trip B6 if B7 fails
2
 Exercise
A. Draw the protective zones for the power system shown in figure below.
B. Which circuit breakers should open for a fault at P1? at P2?
 A. Solution

B. For a fault at P1, located in zone 5, breakers B24 and B42 should open.
For a fault at P2, located in the overlap region of zones 4 and 5, breakers B24,
B42, B21, and B23 should open.
 2.2 Power System Protection Components
1. Instrumentation transformers(Transducers)
 Transform the high value of fault current or voltage into low levels
 E.g. CTs and PTs
2. Protective Relay
 Process the signal from the transducers and initiates tripping circuit breaker
Electromechanical relays: are the oldest generation of relay and have been in use f
long time
 Static relays: represent the second generation of the relays

 Microprocessor relays: represent the latest generation of relays, the most advance
generation of relays
3. Circuit Breaker
 Responds to the trip signal from relay to interrupt an electric circuit

13
 2.2.1. Instrument transformers
 Instrument transformers are special types of transformers
intended for measuring of voltages and currents.
 The main tasks of instrument transformers are:
To transform currents, or voltages, from a high value to a value
easy to handle for relays and instruments.
To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage.
 These are generally classified as:
Current transformers
Potential transformers

14
 Current Transformer
 used to step down current for metering and protection Purpose
 The main parts of a CT are the iron core, the primary and secondary
windings, and the external insulation.
 A current transformer basically has a primary coil of one or mor
turns of heavy cross-sectional area.
 The secondary of the transformer is made up of a large number o
turns of fine wire having small cross-sectional area.
 The primary winding connected in series with the conducto
carrying the current which to be measured or controlled.
 The secondary winding is thus isolated from the high voltage an
then can be connected to low-voltage metering circuits.
 This is usually rated for 1A or 5A.

15
 Current Transformer…
 from current point of view, CTs are step down transformers,
stepping down the current value considerably from primary to
secondary

 As N2 is very high compared to N1, the ratio I1 and I2 is also very

high for current transformer

 Example: A 250:5 current transformer is used along with an

ammeter. If ammeter reading is 2.7A, estimate the line current.

16
 Potential Transformer
 The basic principle of these transformers is same as CTs
 The high alternating voltage are reduced in a fixed proportion for
the measurement purpose with the help of potential transformers.
 The construction of these transformers is similar to the normal
transformer. These are extremely accurate ratio step down
transformers.
 Its ratio can be specified as:

18
Fig. connections of instrument transformers
 Protective Relay
 A protective relay is a device which responds to
conditions in an electrical power system, to control a
abnormal
circuit-
breaker so as to isolate the faulty section of the system, with
theit is a smart device that receive inputs, compares them t
setminimum interruption to service.
 points, and be:
Inputs can provide outputs .
o current,
o voltage,

20
 How Do Relays Detect Faults?
 When a fault takes place, the current, voltage, frequency, and othe
electrical variables behave in a peculiar way. For example:
 Current suddenly increases
 Voltage suddenly decreases

 Relays can measure the currents and the voltages and detect tha
there is an overcurrent, or an under-voltage, or a combination of both
 Many other detection principles determine the design of protective
relays

22
 Protective Relay Operation
 Consider a typical relay circuit is shown in the figure below
 When a short circuit occurs at point F on the transmission line, the curre
flowing in the line increases to an enormous value.
• This results in a heavy current flow through the
relay coil, causing the relay to operate by closing
its contacts.
• This in turn closes the trip circuit of the breaker,
making the circuit breaker open and isolating the
faulty section from the rest of the system.
• In this way, the relay ensures the safety of the
circuit equipment from damage and normal
working of the healthy portion of the system.

23
 Fundamental Requirements of Protective Relaying
 The principal function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt
removal from service of any element of the power system.
 In order that protective relay system may perform this function
satisfactorily, it should have the following qualities :
1 . Selectivity: It is the ability of the protective system to select correctly that part of the system in
trouble and disconnect the faulty part without disturbing the rest of the system.
2. Speed: The relay system should disconnect the faulty section as fast as possible.
3 Sensitivity: It is the ability of the relay system to operate with low value of actuating quantity.
4. Reliability: It is the ability of the relay system to operate under the pre-determined conditions.
5. Simplicity: The relaying system should be simple so that it can be easily maintained. Reliability
is closely related to simplicity. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability
6. Economy: The most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme is the
economic aspect.

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 Important Terms
 Pickup current: is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the
relay starts to operate.
 Current Setting: It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any
required value. This is known as current setting and is usually achieved by the
use of tappings on the relay operating coil.

Pickup current=% current setting x rated secondary current of CT

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 Cont…
For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay
having current setting of 125% is connected to a
supply circuit through a current transformer of
400/5. The rated secondary current of C.T. is 5
amperes. Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25%
more than 5 A i.e. 5 × 1·25 = 6·25 A. It means that
with above current setting, the relay will actually
operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater
than 6·25 A.
 Important Terms…
 Plug setting multiplier (PSM): the ratio of actual fault current in the relay
coil to the pickup current i.e.
fault current in relay coil
PSM =
pickup value

fault current in relay coil

=
%current setting × rated secondary current of CT
 Time/PSM Curve: a curve showing relation b/n time & PSM
 Time-Setting Multiplier: a relay is provided with a feature with which its
time of operation can be controlled.
o The value of time setting multiplier along with the time obtained from
time/PSM curve decides the actual time of operation of the relay.
Actual time of operation= time in seconds x time setting multiplier
In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must be
known.
(a) Time/P.S.M. curve (d) Fault current
28 (b) Current setting (e) Current transformer ratio
(c) Time setting
For example, suppose that a relay is connected to a
400/5 current transformer and set at 150%.
With a primary fault current of 2400 A, the plug-
setting multiplier can be calculated as under :
Pick-up value = Rated secondary current ofCT×
Current setting
= 5 × 1·5 = 7·5 A
Example 1. Determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere over current relay
having a current setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0·6 connected
to supply circuit through a 400/5 current transformer when the circuit carries a
fault current of 4000 A. Use the curve shown in Fig.

Corresponding to the plug-setting multiplier of 8

(See in Fig), the time of operation is 3.5 seconds.
∴ Actual relay operating time = 3·5 × Time-setting
= 3·5 × 0·6 = 2·1 seconds
 Exercise
The current rating of an over current relay is 5 ampere. The current setting is
200%. TSM = 0.5, CT ratio = 500/5 A, fault current = 800A. Determine
The actual operating time of overcurrent relay. PSM vs operating time data is given
below.

PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating 10.2 5 4.5 3 2.5 2.4
Time (sec)
 Overcurrent Relay
 Over current protection is that protection in which the relay picks
up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pick-up value (level).
 The relay has the time setting and the plug setting.
 The time setting decides the operating time of the relay while the
plug setting decides the current required for the relay to pick up.

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 Types of overcurrent Relay

 Depending upon time of operation, over current relays are

classified into 4 groups.
Instantaneous over current relay
Definite time over current relay
Directional over current relay
Inverse time over current relay
 inverse definite minimum time (IDMT),
 very inverse time,
 extremely inverse time over current relay or OC relay

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 Instantaneous over current relay
• The preset value of current in the relay coil
is referred as pick up setting current.
• This relay is referred as instantaneous over
current relay, as ideally, the relay operates as
soon as the current in the coil gets higher
than pick up setting current.
• There is no intentional time delay applied.
• But there is always an inherent time delay
which can not be avoided practically.

• In practice the operating time of an

instantaneous relay is of the order of a few
milliseconds.

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 Definite time over current relay

it is created by applying intentional time delay after crossing pick up value

the current.
 Thus, it has a time setting adjustment and pick up adjustment.
 In this type, two conditions must be satisfied for operation (tripping):
 Current must exceed the setting value and
 the fault must be continuous at least for a time equal to time setting of the relay

 Modern relays may contain more than one stage of protection each stage
includes each own current and time setting. Figure next slide shows a mult
stage overcurrent relay.

32
 Definite time over current relay…

 Definite time over current relay is the most applied type of over current.
 It is used as :
• Backup protection of distance relay of
transmission line with time delay
• Backup protection to differential relay
of power transformer with time delay
• Main protection to out going feeders
and bus couplers with adjustable time
Tripping Characteristics of Multi-Stage
delay setting. Definite Time Over Current Relay

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 Inverse time over current relay

 In this type of relay, operating time is inversely changed with

current.
 So, high currents will operate over current relay faster than lower
ones.
 Different currents of inverse time type are defined as IDMT, very
inverse , extremely inverse all these types are shown in figure.

 Inverse time characteristic fits in very well, with the requirement

that the more severe a fault is, the faster it should be cleared to
avoid damage to the apparatus

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 Inverse time over current relay…

35
 Inverse time over current relay…

Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) over-current relay

 This is possibly the most widely used characteristic.
 The characteristic is inverse in the initial part, which tends to a
definite minimum operating time as the current becomes very
high.
Very inverse time over-current relay
 The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the
IDMT characteristic
Extremely inverse time over-current relay
 The inverseness of this characteristic is higher than that of the
very inverse characteristic.

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 Directional Over Current Relay

 operates in one direction of current flow and blocks in the opposite

direction.
 Three condition must be satisfied for operation:
 current magnitude
 time delay
 directionality.
 The directionality of current flow is identified using voltage as a
reference of direction.

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 Directional Protection Relay
 is used where the selectivity can be achieved by directional relaying.
 recognizes the direction in which fault occurs, relative to location of the
relay.
 It is set such that, it actuates for fault occurring in one direction only, it
doesn’t act for faults occurring in the other direction.

• The CB in feeder AY is provided with a

directional relay R which will trip the CB
CBy, if fault power flow in direction A,
alone.
• Therefore, for faults in feeder AX, the
CB CBy does not trip unnecessarily.

47
 Differential Protection

 responds to a vector difference between two or more similar electrical

quantities.
 In general, differential relay should have at least two actuating quantities
e.g. i1- i2, v1-v2
 The two actuating quantities should be similar.
 The relay responds to the vector difference between two quantities (i.e.
I1-I2), which includes magnitude &/or phase angle difference.

 Differential protection is generally unit protection.

 The protected zone can exactly determined by the locations of CT’s or
PT’s.
 The vector difference is achieved by suitable connection of CT’s or PT’s
secondaries.
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 Differential Protection…

 Some application of differential protection principle are:

 Protection of generator or generator-transformer unit
 Protection of transformer
 Protection of transmission line
 Protection of bus or bus zone
 Protection of large motors.

50
 Differential Protection…
Principle of Merz-price Protection (circulating current
differential protection):

• In figure, X be the winding to be

protected
• Under normal operating condition ,
I1-I2 = 0,
hence no current through relay coil,
hence no operation of relay.

fig.: No fault

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 Differential Protection…
 Principle of Merz-price Protection (circulating current
differential protection)…

• During internal fault I1-I2 ≠ 0,

hence the current through relay
coil causing relay operation.

fig.: internal fault

52
 Distance Protection

 A distance relay has the ability to detect a fault within a pre-set distance
along a transmission line or power cable from its location.
 Every power line has a resistance and reactance per kilometer related to
its design and construction so its total impedance will be a function of
its length.
 A distance relay therefore looks at current and voltage and compares
these two quantities on the basis of Ohm’s law.

53
 Distance Protection…

 for distance measurement it is appropriate to use a relay capable of

measuring the impedance of a line up to a predetermined point (the
reach point).
 Distance relay is designed to operate only for faults occurring between
the relay location and the predetermined (reach) point.

 The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of

voltage at the relaying point by the measured current.
 The calculated apparent impedance is compared with the reach point
impedance.
 If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is
assumed that a fault exists on the line between the relay and the reach
point.
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Thank You
 2.3.3. Circuit Breaker
 A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can
 make or break a circuit either manually or by remote control under
normal conditions
 break a circuit automatically under fault conditions
 make a circuit either manually or by remote control under fault
conditions

 A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts.

 Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed.
 The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever
desired.
 When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the CB ge
energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism,
thus opening the circuit.
 Arc Phenomenon
 An arc is formed when the contacts of a breaker separate due to voltage
across the contacts and current supplied to a load.
 During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts
depends upon the arc resistance.

 The arc resistance depends upon the following factors:

 Degree of ionization
 Length of the arc
 Cross-section of arc

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 Principles of Arc Extinction
 Factors responsible for the maintenance of arc between the contacts are:
 Potential difference between the contacts
 ionized particles between contacts

Taking these in turn,

 One way to extinguish the arc is to separate the contacts to such a
distance that pd becomes inadequate to maintain the arc
 If the arc path is deionized, the arc extinction will be facilitated by
cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionized particles from the
space between the contact.

57
 Methods of Arc Extinction
 There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.
1. High resistance method:
 is employed only in dc circuit breakers and low-capacity ac CBs
 The resistance of the arc may be increased by:
 Lengthening the arc-increasing the gap b/n contacts
 Cooling the arc: helps in the deionization of the medium between the
contacts
 Reducing X-section of the arc: The cross-section of the arc can be
reduced by letting the arc pass through a narrow opening or by having sm
area of contacts
 Splitting the arc: The arc may be split by introducing some
conducting plates between the contacts.

58
 Methods of Arc Extinction…
2. Low resistance or Current zero method :
 is employed for arc extinction in ac circuits only.
 In this method, arc resistance is kept low until current is zero where the
arc extinguishes naturally and is prevented from restriking inspite of th
rising voltage across the contacts.
 All modern high power ac circuit breakers employ this method for arc
extinction

59
 Types of Circuit Breakers

 Based on the medium used for arc extinction, CB can be

classified as:
 Oil Circuit Breakers
 Vacuum Circuit Breakers
 Air Blast Circuit Breakers
 SF6 Circuit Breakers
 The medium used for arc extinction is usually oil, air, sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum.

60
 Oil Circuit Breaker

 These are of two types

• BOCB (Bulk oil Circuit Breaker)
• MOCB (Minimum oil Circuit
Breaker)
 In BOCB oil is used as arc quenching
media as well as insulating media
between current carrying contacts and
earthed parts of the breaker
 In MOCB oil is used only for
extinguishing of the arc
 The contacts are immersed in oil bath.
 Oil provides cooling by hydrogen
created by arc.
 It acts as a good dielectric medium and
quenches the arc.
61
 Oil Circuit Breaker…

Advantages:
 Oil has good dielectric strength.
 Low cost.
 Oil is easily available.
 It has wide range of breaking capability.
Disadvantages:
 Slower operation , takes about 20 cycles for arc quenching.
 It is highly inflammable , so high risk of fire.
 High maintenance cost.

62
 VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER

 It is designed for medium voltage

range
 This consists of vacuum of pressure
(1*10-6) inside arc extinction chamber.
 The arc burns in metal vapor when the
contacts are disconnected.
 At high voltage , it’s rate of dielectric
strength recovery is very high.
 Due to vacuum arc extinction is very
fast.
 The contacts loose metals gradually
due to formation of metal vapors.

63
 VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER…

Advantages:
 Free from arc and fire hazards.
 Low cost for maintenance & simpler mechanism.
 Low arcing time & high contact life.
 Silent and less vibrational operation.
 Due to vacuum contacts remain free from corrosion.
 No byproducts formed.
Disadvantages:
 High initial cost due to creation of vacuum.
 Surface of contacts are depleted due to metal vapors.
 High cost & size required for high voltage breakers.

64
 AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKERS
 This operates using high velocity
blast of air which quenches the arc.
 It consists of blast valve , blast tube
& contacts.
 Blast valve contains air at high
pressure.
 Blast tube carries the air at high
pressure & opens the moving contact
attached to spring.
 There is no carbonization of surface
as in VCB.
 Air should be kept clean & dry to
operate it properly.

65
 AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER…

Advantages:
 High speed operation as compared to OCB.
 Ability to withstand frequent switching.
 Facility for high speed reclosure.
 Less maintenance as compared to OCB.
Disadvantages:
 Little moisture content prolongs arcing time.
 Pressure should be checked frequently for frequent operation.
 Risk of fire hazards due to over voltages.
 It can’t be used for high voltage operation due to prolonged arc
quenching.

66
 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 It contains an arc interruption chamber containing SF6 gas.

 In closed position the contacts remain surrounded by SF6 gas
at a pressure
 During opening high pressure SF6 gas from its reservoir flow
towards the chamber by valve mechanism.
 SF6 rapidly absorbs the free electrons in the arc path to form
immobile negative ions to build up high dielectric strength.
 It also cools the arc and extinguishes it.
 After operation the valve is closed by the action of a set of
springs.
 Absorbent materials are used to absorb the byproducts and
moisture.
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 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS….

68
 SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS…

Advantages:
 Very short arcing period due to superior arc quenching property
of SF6 .
 Can interrupt much larger currents as compared to other breakers.
 No risk of fire.
 Low maintenance, light foundation.
 No over voltage problem.
 There are no carbon deposits.
Disadvantages:
 SF6 breakers are costly due to high cost of SF6.
 SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker,
additional equipment is required for this purpose.

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 Selection of Circuit Breaker

 The following parameters are required to be known for

selecting proper rating circuit breaker at a given location on a
power system:
 The maximum fault current which is to be interrupted by
the breaker
 The maximum current to be carried momentarily

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 Circuit Breaker Ratings

 Some of the important characteristics or ratings that must be possessed

by every high voltage ac CB are as follows
 Rated voltage  Rated peak withstand
 Rated insulation level current
 Rated normal current  Rated operating sequence
 Rated frequency  Rated supply voltage for
 Rated duration of short opening & closing devices &
circuit auxiliary circuits
 Rated short circuit breaking  Rated pressure of
current compressed gas for
 Rated short circuit making interruption
current

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