OPEN CHANNEL HYDRAULICS

Chapter 2
Uniform Flow
 INTRODUCTION
Uniform Flow and its properties

 The flow is said to be Uniform, if, for a given length of the channel, the velocity of flow, the
depth of flow remains constant, i.e.

dy/dS = 0 ; dv/dS= 0

 Uniform Flow occurs in long inclined channels of uniform cross section when the terminal
velocity is reached. This occurs when the loss of potential energy equals the work done
against the channel surface friction. In this condition the water surface is parallel to the bed
of the channel.
 The depth of flow remains constant at all the sections in a uniform flow. Considering two
sections 1 and 2, the depths,

y1=y2= yo
And hence, A1=A2=Ao
 Since Q = AV = constant, it follows that in uniform flow V1 = V2 = V. Thus in a uniform
flow, the depth of flow, area of cross-section and velocity of flow remain constant along
the channel. It is obvious, therefore, that uniform flow is possible only in prismatic
channels.
 The trace of the water surface and channel bottom slope are parallel in uniform flow as
shown in figure below. Further, since V = constant, the energy line will be at a constant
elevation above the water surface. As such, the slope of the energy line Sf , slope of the
water surface Sw and bottom slope S0 will all be equal to each other.

Figure: Uniform Flow

 Basic Resistance Equations
CHEZY EQUATION

By definition there is no acceleration in uniform flow. By applying the momentum equation to a control
volume encompassing Sections 1 and 2, distance L apart, as shown in Fig. in previous slide,
P1− W sin θ − Ff− P2= M2− M1 ……………………… (1)
where P1 and P2 are the pressure forces and M1 and M2 are the momentum fluxes at Sections 1 and 2
respectively W = weight to fluid in the control volume and Ff =shear force at the boundary.
Since the flow is uniform, P1= P2 and M1 = M2
Also, W = γ AL and Ff = τ0 PL
where τ0 = average shear stress on the wetted perimeter of length P and γ = unit weight of water.
Replacing sin θ by S0 (= bottom slope), Eq. 1 can be written as
γ ALS0 = τ0 PL
Or τ0 = γ(A/P)S0 = γ RS0 ……………………… (2)
where, R=hydraulic radius =A/P
Expressing the average shear stress τ0 as τ0 = kρV2, where k = a coefficient depending on nature of the surface
and flow parameters.
Eq. 2 is written as kρV2 =γRS0
leading to V = CRS0 ……………………… (3)
where C = √(γ/ρk)= a coefficient which depends on the nature of the surface and the flow. Eqn. 3 is known as
the Chezy formula.
The dimensions of C are [L1/2 T−1] and it can be made dimensionless by dividing it by g .
The coefficient C is known as the Chezy coefficient.
DARCY-WEISBACH FRICTION FACTOR,
f
Pipe Flow - A surface can be termed hydraulically smooth, rough or in transition depending on the relative
thickness of the roughness magnitude to the thickness of the laminar sub-layer. The classification is as
follows:
(εsν∗)/ν < 4 — hydraulically-smooth wall
4 < (εsν∗)/ν < 60 — transitional regime
(εsν∗)/ν < 60 — full rough flow
where εs = equivalent sand grain roughness, ν∗ = √τ0/ρ = √gRS0 = shear velocity and v=kinematic viscosity.
For Pipe Flow, the Darcy–Weisbach equation is hf = fLV2/D2g ………………………(4)

where h = head loss due to friction in a pipe of diameter D and length L; f = Darcy– Weisbach friction factor.
f

For smooth pipes, f is a function of the Reynolds number Re = (VD/v) only.

For rough turbulent flows, f is a function of the relative roughness (εs/D) and type of roughness and is independent of the Reynolds

number.

In the transition regime, both the Reynolds number and relative roughness play important roles. The extensive experimental

investigations of pipe flow have yielded the following generally accepted relations for the variation of f in various regimes of flow:

1. For smooth walls and Re < 105

f = 0.316/ Re1/4 (Blasius formula) …………………..(5)

2. For smooth walls and Re > 105

1/√f = 2.0 log Re √f − 0.8 (Karman–Prandtl equation) ………….(6)

3. For rough boundaries and Re > 105

1/√f = − 2 log (εs/D) + 1.14 (Karman–Prandtl equation) …………..(7)

Open Channels - For purposes of flow resistance which essentially takes place in a thin layer adjacent to
the wall, an open channel can be considered to be a conduit cut into two.
The hydraulic radius would then be the appropriate length parameter and prediction of friction factor f can be
done by using Eqs. 5 to 8. It should be remembered that Re = 4RV/ν and the relative roughness is (εs/4R).

Equation 3.4 can then be written for an open channel flow as

Which on rearranging gives,

…………………………(9)
Noting that for uniform flow in an open channel h f /L = slope of the energy line = Sf = S0 , it may be seen that
Eq. 9 is the same as Eq. 3 (Chezy formula) with C = √(8g /f) …………………………...(10)

For convenience of use, Eq. 10 along with Eqs. 5 to 8 can be used to prepare a modified Moody chart
showing the variation of C with
Simplified empirical forms of Eqs. 6 and 8, which are accurate enough for all practical purposes, are
given by Jain3 as follows:
1/√f = 1.80 log Re – 1.5146 (in lieu of Eq. 6) ………… (6a)
and 1√f = 1.14 – 2.0 log [(εs/4R)+(21.25/Re0.9) (in lieu of Eq. 8) ……….. (8a)
Eqn. 8a is valid for 5000 ≤ Re ≤ 108 and 10–6 < εs/4R < 10–2
These two equations are very useful for obtaining explicit solutions of many flow-resistance problems.

Figure: Values of εs for some Common Channel Surfaces

 MANNING’S FORMULA

A resistance formula proposed by Robert Manning, an Irish engineer, for uniform flow in open channels, is
V = (1/n) R2/3S01/2 ………………………(11)

where n = a roughness coefficient known as Manning’s n. This coefficient is essentially a function of the
nature of boundary surface.
It may be noted that the dimensions of n are [L–1/ 3 T ]. Equation 11 is popularly known as the Manning’s
formula.
Owing to its simplicity and acceptable degree of accuracy in a variety of practical applications, the Manning’s
formula is probably the most widely used uniform flow formula in the world.
Comparing Eq. 11 with the Chezy formula, Eq. 3, we have
C = 1/n R1/6 …………………(12)
From Equation 10, C = √8g/f = (1/n) R1/6

i.e. f = (n2/R1/3) (8g) ............................(13)

Since Eq.13 does not contain velocity term (and hence the Reynolds number), we can compare Eq.13 with Eq. 7,
i.e., the Prandtl–Karman relationship for rough turbulent flow.
If Eq. 7 is plotted as f vs. 4R/εs on a log-log paper, a smooth curve that can be approximated to a straight line
with a slope of (-1/3) is obtained. From this the term f can be expressed as

Figure: Variation of f in fully rough flow

Since from Eq.13, f ∝ n2/R1/3 , it follows that n ∝ εs 1/6. Conversely, if n ∝ εs 1/6, the Manning’s formula and
Darcy–Weisbach formula both represent rough turbulent flow ((εsν∗)/ν >40)
OTHER RESISTANCE FORMULA
Several forms of expressions for the Chezy coefficient C have been proposed by different investigators in the
past. Many of these are archaic and are of historic interest only. A few selected ones are listed below:
1. Pavlovski formula
C = 1/n Rx = 1 ………..(14)
in which x = 2.5 n − 0.13 − 0.75 R ( n − 0.10) and n = Manning’s coefficient. This formula appears to be in
use in Russia.

2. Ganguillet and Kutter Formula

............(15)

3. Bazin’s formula
...............(16)
in which M = a coefficient dependent on the surface roughness.
 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION
(a) Wide Channels
(i) Velocity-defect Law - In channels with large aspect ratio B/y0 , as in rivers
and very large canals, the flow can be considered to be essentially 2-D. The
fully developed velocity distributions are similar to the logarithmic form of
velocity-defect law found in turbulent flow in pipes. The maximum
velocity um occurs essentially at the water surface, (Fig. below).
The velocity u at a height y above the bed in a channel having uniform
flow at a depth y0 is given by the velocity- defect law for y/y0 > 0.15 as

Figure: Velocity profile in a wide open

…………….(17) channel

where u∗ = shear velocity = τ0/ρ = √gRS0 , R = hydraulic radius, S0 = longitudinal slope, and k = Karman
constant = 0.41 for open channel flows5
This equation is applicable to both rough and smooth boundaries alike. Assuming the velocity distribution of
Eq.17 is applicable to the entire depth y0, the velocity u can be expressed in terms of the average velocity.

……………..(18)

From eqn. 18 ………………(19)

(ii) Law of the Wall - For smooth boundaries, the law of the wall as

………………(20)
is found applicable in the inner wall region (y/y0 < 0.20). The values of the constants are found to be k = 0.41
and As = 5.29 regardless of the Froude number and Reynolds number of the flow 5 . Further, there is an overlap
zone between the law of the wall region and the velocity-defect law region.
For completely rough turbulent flows, the velocity distribution in the wall region ( y / y0 < 0.20) is given by

……………….(21)
(b) Channels with Small Aspect Ratio
In channels which are not wide enough to have 2-D flow, the resistance of the sides will be significant to alter the two-
dimensional nature of the velocity distribution given by Eq.17. The most important feature of the velocity distributions is the
occurrence of velocity-dip, where the max, velocity occurs not at the free surface but rather some distance below it, (Fig.
below).
The critical ratio of B/y0 above which the velocity-dip becomes insignificant has been found to be about 5.0. Based on this
the channels with B/y0 ≤ 5 can be classified as narrow channels.

Figure: Velocity profile Figure: Typical velocity distribution Figure: Typical velocity distribution in a
in a narrow in a narrow channel, B/y0 = rectangular channel with B/y0 = 6.0.
channel 1.0.
 SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION
 The average shear stress τ0 on the boundary of a channel is given as τ0 = γ RS0. However, this shear stress
is not uniformly distributed over the boundary.
 It is zero at the intersection of the water surface with the boundary and at the corners in the boundary. As
such, the boundary shear stress τ0 will have certain local maxima on the side as well as on the bed.
 The turbulence of the flow and the presence of secondary currents in the channel also contribute to the
non-uniformity of the shear stress distribution.
A typical distribution of the boundary shear stress on the side (τ s) and bed (τb) in a trapezoidal channel of B/y0
= 4.0 and side slope m = 1.5 obtained by Lane is shown in Fig below.
The variation of the maximum shear stress on the bed τ bm and on the sides τsm in rectangular and trapezoidal
channels is shown in Fig. on next slide. It is noted from the figure that for trapezoidal sections approximately
τsm= 0.76 γy0S0 and τbm =γy0S0 when B/y0= 6.0.

Figure: Variation of boundary shear stress in a

trapezoidal channel with B/y0 = 4 and m = 1.5
Figure: Variation of maximum shear stress on bed and sides of smooth
channels
 Emperical Formula For “n”
Many empirical formulae have been presented for estimating Manning’s coefficient n in natural streams. These
relate n to the bed- particle size.
The most popular form under this type is the Strickler formula:

where d50 is in metres and represents the particle size

in which 50 per cent of the bed material is finer.

For mixtures of bed materials with considerable coarse-grained sizes:

Where d90 = size in metres in which 90 per cent of the

particles are finer than d90. This equation is reported to be useful in predicting n in
mountain streams paved with coarse gravel and cobbles.

Factors affecting “n”

The Manning’s n is essentially a coefficient representing the integrated effect of a large number of factors
contributing to the energy loss in a reach. Some important factors are: (a) Surface roughness, (b) vegetation, (c)
cross-section irregularity and (d) irregular alignment of channel.
 EQUIVALENT ROUGHNESS

In some channels different parts of the channel perimeter may have different roughness's. Canals in
which only the sides are lined, laboratory flumes with glass side walls and rough bed, natural rivers with
sandy bed and sides with vegetation, flood plains with different land uses are some typical examples. For
such channels it is necessary to determine an equivalent roughness coefficient that can be applied to the
entire cross-sectional perimeter for use in Manning’s formula. This equivalent roughness, also called the
composite roughness, represents a weighted average value for the roughness coefficient.

One of the commonly used method due to Horton (1933) and Einstein (1934) is described below. Table
in the next slide lists several proposed formulae for equivalent roughness. For calculating subareas the
dividing lines can be vertical lines or bisector of angles at the break in the geometry of the roughness
element.
 Horton’s Method of Equivalent Roughness Estimation

Consider a channel having its perimeter composed of N types of roughness, P 1, P2, ..., Pi,..., PN are the
lengths of these N parts and n1, n2, ..., ni..., nN are the respective roughness coefficients (Fig. below). Let
each part Pi be associated with a partial area Ai such that

Figure: Multi roughness type perimeter

It is assumed that the mean velocity in each partial area is the mean velocity V for the entire area of fl ow,
i.e., V1 = V2 = ... = Vi = ... VN = V
By the Manning’s formula,
…………..(22)

Where n = equivalent roughness

From Eqn. 22 ,

…………(23)

………….(24)
This formula was independently developed by Horton in 1933 and by Einstein in 1934. Eq. 24 is popularly known as
Horton’s formula.
If the Darcy–Weisbach friction formula is used under the same assumption of (i) Velocity being equal in all the partial
areas, and (ii) slope S0 is common to all partial areas, then

∑ Pi fi = Pf or f =∑ Pi fi/P ...............(25)
Table: Equations for Equivalent Roughness Coefficient
 Conveyance of a Channel Section
The conveyance of a Channel Section is a measure of the carrying capacity of the channel section.
The Manning’s formula and the continuity equation, Q = AV form the basic equations for uniform-flow computations. The
discharge Q is then given by
……………(26)

……………(26a)
where, K = (1/n) AR2/3 is called the conveyance of the channel and expresses the discharge capacity of the channel per unit
longitudinal slope.
The term n K = AR2/3 is sometimes called the section factor for uniform-flow computations.
For a given channel, AR2/3 is a function of the depth of flow.
For example, consider a trapezoidal section of bottom width = B and side slope m horizontal: 1 vertical. Then,

…………….(27)

For a given channel, B and m are fixed and AR2/3 = f (y).

Figure below shows the relationship of Eq. 27 in a non-dimensional manner by plotting φ= AR 2/3/B8/3 vs y/B for
different values of m.
It may be seen that for m ≥ 0, there is only one value y/B for each value of φ, indicating that for m ≥ 0, AR 2/3 is a
single-valued function of y. This is also true for any other shape of channel provided that the top width is either
constant or increases with depth. These channels are denoted as the channels of the first kind.

Figure: Variation of φ with y/B in trapezoidal

channels
Since AR2/3 = Qn/√S0 and if n and S0 are fixed for a channel, the channels of the first kind have a unique depth in
uniform flow associated with each discharge. This depth is called the normal depth. The normal depth is defined as
the depth of flow at which a given discharge flows as uniform flow in a given channel.
The normal depth is designated as y0 , the suffix ‘0’ being usually used to indicate uniform-flow conditions. The
channels of the first kind thus have one normal depth only.
While a majority of the channels belong to the first kind, sometimes one encounters channels with closing top width.
Circular and ovoid sewers are typical examples of this category, Channels with a closing top-width can be designated
as channels of the second kind. The variation of AR2/3 with depth of flow in two geometries of channels of second
kind is shown in Fig. below. It may be seen that in some ranges of depth, AR 2/3 is not a single valued function of depth.

Figure: Variation of AR2/3 in channels of the second kind

(i) For circular channels
The range y/D > 0.82 has two values of y for a given value of AR2/3.
(ii) For triangular shaped channels
The following ranges of y/B, which depend on the value of side slope m, have two depths for a given value of AR 2/3:
• For m = − 0.25, the range y/B > 0.71
• For m = − 0.50, the range y/B > 1.30
From the figure in previous slide, the channels of the second kind will have a finite depth of flow at which AR 2/3, and
hence, the discharge for a given channel is maximum.

Types of Problems Uniform flow computation problems are relatively simple. The available relations are
1. Manning’s formula
2. Continuity equation
3. Geometry of the cross section
 EXAMPLES
Example 1: A 2.0-m wide rectangular channel carries water at 20°C at a depth of 0.5 m. The channel is
laid on a slope of 0.0004. Find the hydrodynamic nature of the surface if the channel is made of (a) very
smooth concrete and (b) rough concrete.
Solution: Hydraulic radius, R = (2 * 0.5) / (2+ 2*0.5) = 0.333m
τ0 = γ RS0 = (9.81 × 103) × 0.333 × 0.0004 = 1.308 N/m2
v* = shear velocity = √τo/ρ = √ (1.308/ 103) = . 0.03617 m/s

(A) For a smooth concrete surface

From table in slide 8, εs = 0.25 mm = 0.00025 m
v at 20°C = 10–6m2/s
εs ν*/ ν = 0.0002510 *0.03617 / 10–6 = 9.04
Since this value is slightly greater than 4.0, the boundary is hydrodynamically in the early transition from
smooth to rough surface.
(B) For a rough concrete surface
From Table 3.1, εs = 3.5 mm = 0.0035
εs ν*/ ν = 126.6
Since this value is greater than 60, the boundary is hydrodynamically rough.
Example 2: A trapezoidal channel is 10.0 m wide and has a side slope of 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical.
The bed slope is 0.0003. The channel is lined with smooth concrete of n = 0.012. Compute the mean
velocity and discharge for a depth of flow of 3.0 m. Also, find the bottom slope necessary to carry
only 50 m3/s of the discharge at a depth of 3.0 m.

Solution: Let y0 = uniform flow depth

Here B = 10.0 m and side slope m = 1.5
Area A = (B + my) y = (10.0 + 1.5 × 3.0) 3.0 = 43.50 m2

Wetted perimeter P = B +2y √(m2 +1)

= 10 + 2 √(2.25 + 1) x 3 = 20.817 m
Hydraulic radius R = A/P = 2.090 m
Mean velocity V = 1/n R2/3 S01/2 = (1/0.012) x (2.090)2/3 )0.0003)1/2

Discharge Q = AV = 102.63 m3/s

Bottom slope, S0 = Q2n2/ A2R4/3 = (50)2 (0.012)2/ (43.5)2 (2.090)4/3

S0 = 0.0000712
Example 3: A 5.0-m wide trapezoidal channel having a side slope of 1.5 horizontal: 1 vertical is laid on a slope
of 0.00035. The roughness coefficient n = 0.015. Find the normal depth for a discharge of 20 m 3/s through this
channel.

Solution: Let y0 = normal depth

Area A = (5.0 + 1.5 y0) y0
Wetted perimeter, P = 5.0 + √3.25 y0 = 5.0 + 3.606 y0
R = A/P = (5.0 + 1.5 y0) y0 / 5.0 + 3.606 y0

The section factor AR2/3 = Qn/√ S0

[(5.0 + 1.5 y0)5/3 y05/3 ]/[(5.0 + 3.606 y0) 2/3] = (20 x 0.015)/√ 0.00035 = 16.036

Algebraically, y0 can be found from the above equation by the trial-and-error method. The normal
depth is found to be 1.820 m.
 Most Economical Section of Channels
 A section of a channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction of the
channel is minimum. But the cost of construction of a channel depends on excavation and
the lining. To keep the cost down or minimum, the wetted perimeter, for a given discharge,
should be minimum. This condition is utilized for determining the dimensions of
economical sections of different forms of channels. Most economical section is also called
the best section or most efficient section as the discharge, passing through a most
economical section of channel for a given cross-sectional area A, slope of the bed S0 and a
resistance coefficient, is maximum. But the discharge
Q =AV =AC =AC = constant *

Hence the discharge Q will be maximum when the wetted perimeter P is minimum
 Most Economical Rectangular Channel
Consider a rectangular section of channel as shown:

Let B = width of channel, D = depth of flow.

\Area of flow, A=B*D (1)
Wetted perimeter, P = 2D + B (2)
 from Eq. (1) we have B = A/D , which if substituted in (2), we
get
(3)

For most economical cross section, P should be minimum for a given area

Hence, (4)

The corresponding hydraulic radius is

Hence, (5)
From equations (4) and (5), it is clear that rectangular channel will be most
economical when either:
(a) the depth of the flow is half the width

or
(b) the hydraulic radius is half the depth of flow.
 Most Economical Triangular Channel
Consider a trapezoidal section of channel as shown:

Let, D = depth of flow, side slope = 1/n

Area of flow, A = ½ * 2nD * D = nD2 = D2tanθ

Wetted Perimeter, P = 2 * D * secθ

 P2 = 4D2sec2θ = 4D2(1+tan2θ)
= 4A(cotθ + tanθ)

For economical section P should be minimum.

Therefore,
=0

=0

= 4A(-cosec2θ + sec2θ) = 0

cosec2θ = sec2θ

tan2θ = 1

θ=1

Thus, most economical triangular channel is half of square with diagonal horizontal.
 Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel
Consider a trapezoidal section of channel as shown:

Let B = width of channel at bottom, D = depth of flow, side slope = 1/n

\Area of flow,

(1)
wetted perimeter, (2)

from Eq. (1) we have

which if substituted in (2), we get

(3)

For most economical cross section, P should be minimum or

using Eq. (1) to replace A, we get

 (4)

To obtain the corresponding hydraulic radius, we can use equation (4) to re-write
equation (2) as

(5)

Equations (1) and (5) are used to give the corresponding hydraulic radius:

(6)
From equations (4) and (6), it is clear that trapezoidal channel will be most
economical when either:
(i) one of the sloping sides (wetted length) = half of the top width

or
(ii) the hydraulic radius is half the depth of flow

There is, however, a third condition that could be used to produce the most economical
trapezoidal channel:

“A trapezoidal section channel is most economical if when a semi-circle is drawn with

its centre, O, on the water surface and radius equal to the depth of flow, D, the three
sides of the channel are tangential to the semi-circle”.
To prove third condition, we have

(7)
 using triangle KMN, we have

(8)

Comparing equations (7) and (8), we obtain

using equation (4) to replace the numerator , we obtain

Therefore, OF = D

Thus, if a semi-circle is drawn with O as center and radius equal to the depth of flow
D, the three sides of a most economical trapezoidal section will be tangential to the
semi-circle.
 Best side slope for most economical trapezoidal section
So far we assumed that the side slopes are constant. Let us now consider the case when the side
slopes can also vary. The most economical side slopes of a most economical trapezoidal section
can be obtained as follows:

Equation (4) can be re-written as

(9)

and from Eq. (1) we have

(10)

equating the above two equations, we get

(11)
 We have,

From Equation (10)

for most economical side slopes of a most efficient cross section we satisfy the condition:

=0
 And hence,

Therefore, best side slope is at 60° to the horizontal, i.e.; of all trapezoidal sections a half
hexagon is most economical. However, because of constructional difficulties, it may not be
practical to adopt the most economical side slopes.
 Most Economical Circular Channel

For a most economical section the discharge, for a constant cross-sectional area, slope of bed and
resistance coefficient, is maximum (or P is minimum). But in the case of circular channels, the
area of the flow cannot be maintained constant. Indeed, the cross-sectional area A and the wetted
perimeter P both depend on the angle a .

Let
D = depth of flow
d = diameter of pipe
r = radius of pipe
2a = angle subtended by the free surface at
the centre (in radians)
 A = A1 + A2

Therefore,
Consequently, the cross-sectional area A and the wetted perimeter P both
depend on the angle a which is the most suitable variable. Thus in case of
circular channels, for
most economical section, two separate conditions are obtained:
1) Condition for maximum discharge, and
2) Condition for maximum velocity.
 Condition for Maximum Discharge for Circular Section
Using the Chezy formula

squaring both sides of the equation, we obtain

Applying the condition for maximum discharge

simplifying and applying the above condition, we can write

On Substituting above values

The solution of this equation, by trial and error or graphically, is

To find the corresponding depth of flow, we write

substituting a = 154° , we obtain

D = 0.95 d

This means that the maximum discharge (minimum P) in a circular channel occurs when the
depth of flow is 0.95 times the diameter of the pipe.

The above results holds good when the Chezy formula is used. If Manning’s formula
is used, results will be:
a = 151°
and D = 0.94 d
 Condition for Maximum Velocity for Circular Section
Since the cross-sectional area A varies with a , the condition for the maximum velocity is
different from the condition for the maximum discharge. The condition for the maximum
velocity may be obtained as follows:

Using the Chezy formula,

squaring both sides of the equation, we obtain

Applying the condition for maximum velocity

simplifying and applying the above condition, we can write

On Substituting values

The solution of this equation, by trial and error or graphically, is

a = 2.25 radians or a = 128.75°

To find the corresponding depth of flow, we have

D = 0.81 d

Thus in the most economical circular section, the maximum velocity occurs when the
depth of flow is 0.81 times the diameter of the pipe.
 Reference
s
1. V.T. Chow (2009), “Open Channel Hydraulics”, McGraw Hill.
2. K. Subramanya (2013), “Flow in Open Channel”, TMH, Publication Co. Ltd.
3. K.G. Rangaraju (2013), “Flow through Open Channel”, TMH, Publication Co.
Ltd.
4. Chanson, H. (2004), “ The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow: An Introduction”,
Elsevier.
5. Terry Sturm (2011), “Open Channel Hydraulics”, Tata McGraw Hill Pub.