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Lecture 3 INtroduction To Conclusions

This document discusses different types of conclusions in logical reasoning. It identifies 6 main types: comparisons, causation, assessments, recommendations, predictions, and simple beliefs. For each type, it provides examples and notes to help identify them. It also discusses degrees of conclusion, identifying definite conclusions that are 100% true and indefinite conclusions that are not necessarily always true. Identifying the type and degree of conclusion is important for determining the main conclusion in logical reasoning questions.

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Sumera Kazi
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62 views10 pages

Lecture 3 INtroduction To Conclusions

This document discusses different types of conclusions in logical reasoning. It identifies 6 main types: comparisons, causation, assessments, recommendations, predictions, and simple beliefs. For each type, it provides examples and notes to help identify them. It also discusses degrees of conclusion, identifying definite conclusions that are 100% true and indefinite conclusions that are not necessarily always true. Identifying the type and degree of conclusion is important for determining the main conclusion in logical reasoning questions.

Uploaded by

Sumera Kazi
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture # 3

Introduction to
Conclusions
Instructor: Sumera Kazi
1. Logic and its terms

Getting 2. Introduction to Arguments


3. Introduction to Conclusions
started with
4. Introduction to Evidences
Logical  5. Introduction to Flaws
Reasoning 6. Anatomy of a Logical Reasoning Question
7. Practice
1. Comparisons
 This type of conclusion compares two elements with each other or
compares one element with itself.
 Examples
Types of  It’s clear that this year’s candidate is stronger than last year’s
Conclusion candidate.
cont.  It’s clear that this year’s candidate understands the public’s
wishes better than she did a year ago.
 Top tip: Common indicators Comparative words (better than,
healthier than, more useful than) can help you identify a
conclusion as a comparison
2. Causation
 When one thing (such as an event, action, phenomenon) directly affects
another, it's a causal relationship.
 Examples
Types of  Last night, I took cough medicine and today I feel much better. So that
cough medicine is really effective. (Cause: cough
Conclusion medicine; effect: feeling better)
cont.  John gets good grades without trying very hard, and his teachers have
said multiple times how much they like him. The only possible way that
John maintains his good grades is because of how much his teachers like
him. (Cause: teachers liking John; effect: good grades)
 Top tip: Not so fast! If someone believes something to be true because
of certain facts being true, that isn't necessarily a causal relationship. 
 Example: My friend always calls me on Wednesdays. Therefore, she's
definitely going to call me tomorrow. There is no direct cause and effect here
because there isn't something that is directly affecting something else.
3. Assessments
 When an arguer assigns a certain subjective attribute to
something, you might call it an assessment.
 Examples
Types of  The flower is beautiful.
Conclusion  This policy is very helpful.
cont.  The outcome will be important.
 Note: Scientific facts aren't assessments “The sun is made up of
several gases” is a fact; “The sun is a joyful sight” is an assessment.
4. Recommendations
 This type of conclusion asserts the best method or course of
action (or, in its negative form, recommends against a certain
method or course of action).
 Examples
Types of  In treating this disease, then, physicians should favor Treatment X.
Conclusion  It’s likely that extending the warranty is the only way to gain new
cont. customers.
 Top tip: look out for common indicators Often, a keyword such
as “should” or “ought to” will signal a recommendation to you, but
sometimes the recommendation is implied/infer (such as in the
example about the warranty).
5. Predictions
 A prediction asserts the arguer’s opinion about something that
will take place in the near or distant future.
 Examples
Types of  Obviously, the tennis match will be rescheduled.

Conclusion  Our homeless population may not be reduced by next year.

cont.  It will rain, till whole week.


 Top tip for Identify the conclusion questions If the arguer
believes something will or will not happen at some point in the
future, the chances are good that it’s the argument’s main
conclusion.
6. Simple Beliefs
 These are conclusions that are plain claims that the arguer believes
to be true and that aren't comparisons, assessments,
recommendations, or predictions.
Types of  Examples
Conclusion  It’s clear that the student cheated on the test.
cont.  The thief is probably still in the house somewhere.
 These examples aren't assessments in the sense of the word in
which we're using it—that is, to imply a subjective value judgment.
Checklist
 ✓ Find the point
 ✓ Look for support indicator
Identify the  ✓ Double-check the claim
conclusion  ✓ Look for conclusion indicator words
 ✓ Clarify pronoun
 ✓ Match it! 
 “Degree can help you eliminate choices quickly”
1. Definite
 Referred to as categorical conclusions, signaled by keywords to indicate that something is
true either 100% or 0% of the time. For example:
every
all
Degrees of none
never
Conclusion will

2. Indefinite
 Referred to as qualified conclusions, signaled by keywords to indicate that something isn’t
necessarily true 100% or 0% of the time. For example:
 Likelihood: likely, unlikely, possible, could, might
 Quantity: some, most, more
 Frequency: rarely, seldom, often, sometimes, usually
 Proximity: almost, nearly
 

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