Electromagnetic Fields and

1
Waves

Electromagnetic Fields and Waves

Lecture 5 - 7

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

2

 About 1837, the Director of the Royal Society in London,

Michael Faraday, was interested in static electric fields and the
effect of various insulating materials on these fields.

 This is the lead to his famous invention, the electric motor.

 He found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an

electric current flowed in the wire. The current also flowed if the
loop was moved over a stationary magnet.

►Changing magnetic field produces an electric field.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

3

 In one of his experiments, Faraday had a pair of concentric

metallic spheres constructed, the outer one consisting of two
hemispheres that could be firmly clamed together.
 He also prepared shells of insulating material (or dielectric
material), which would occupy the entire volume between the
concentric spheres.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

4

 Faraday found out, that there was a sort of “charge

displacement” from the inner sphere to the outer sphere, which
was independent of the medium.
 We refer to this flow as displacement, displacement flux, or
simply electric flux.
ψQ

 Where ψ is the electric flux, measured in coulombs, and Q is

the total charge on the inner sphere, also in coulombs.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

 At the surface of the inner sphere, ψ
coulombs of electric flux are produced
by the given charge Q coulombs, and
distributed uniformly over a surface
having an area of 4πa2 m2.
 The density of the flux at this surface
is ψ/4πa2 or Q/4πa2 C/m2.

 The new quantity, electric flux density, is measured in C/m2 and

denoted with D.
 The direction of D at a point is the direction of the flux lines at
that point.
 The magnitude of D is given by the number of flux lines
crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface
area.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

 Example
Find the electric flux density at a point having a distance 3 m
from a uniform line charge of 8 nC/m lying along the z axis in
free space.
L L 8  109 1.273  109
E a  D  a  a  a C m2
2 0  2 2 

For the value ρ = 3 m,

1.273 109
D  4.244  1010 a  C m 2  0.424a nC m2
3

• Can you determine the

electric flux density at
(1,7,7) and (3,4,5)?

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Electric Flux Density

 Example
Calculate D at point P(6,8,–10) produced by a uniform surface
charge density with ρs = 57.2 μC/m2 on the plane x = 9.
s s 57.2 106
E aN  D  aN  a N  28.6a N  C m 2
2 0 2 2

At P(6,8,–10),
a N = a x  D  28.6a x  C m 2

• Can you determine D at

(1,8,2) and (12,–2,7)?

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law

 The results of Faraday’s experiments with the concentric

spheres could be summed up as an experimental law by stating
that the electric flux passing through any imaginary spherical
surface lying between the two conducting spheres is equal to
the charge enclosed within that imaginary surface.
ψQ

 Faraday’s experiment can be generalized to the following

statement, which is known as Gauss’s Law:
“The electric flux passing through any closed surface is
equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface.”

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law

 Imagine a distribution of charge, shown as a cloud of point

charges, surrounded by a closed surface of any shape.

 If the total charge is Q, the Q coulombs of electric flux will pass

through the enclosing surface.
 At every point on the surface the electric-flux-density vector D
will have some value DS (subscript S means that D must be
evaluated at the surface).

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law
 ΔS defines an incremental element of area with magnitude of
ΔS and the direction normal to the plane, or tangent to the
surface at the point in question.
 At any point P, where DS makes an angle θ with ΔS, then the
flux crossing ΔS is the product of the normal components of DS
and ΔS.
ψ  flux crossing S  DS cos   S  D S  S

ψ   dψ   closed DS  dS
surface

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law

 The resultant integral is a closed surface integral, with dS

always involves the differentials of two coordinates
► The integral is a double integral.
 We can formulate the Gauss’s law mathematically as:
ψ   DS  dS  charge enclosed  Q
S

 The charge enclosed meant by the formula above might be

several point charges, a line charge, a surface charge, or a
volume charge distribution.

Q   Qn Q    L dL Q    S dS Q   v dv
S vol

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law
 We now take the last form, written in terms of the charge
distribution, to represent the other forms:
 D
S
S  dS   v dv
vol

 Illustration. Let a point charge Q be

placed at the origin of a spherical
coordinate system, and choose a
closed surface as a sphere of radius a.
 The electric field intensity due to the
point charge has been found to be:

Q
D a
4 r 2 r

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Gauss’s Law
 At the surface, r = a,
Q
DS  a
4 a 2 r

dS  a 2 sin  d d a r
Q 2 Q
DS  dS  a sin  d  d  a  a  sin  d d
4 a 4
2 r r

ψ   DS  dS
S
2  Q
  sin  d d
  0   0 4
r a

Q 2
 cos    0
4  0

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Symmetrical Charge Distributions

 Let us now consider how to use the Gauss’s law to calculate

the electric field intensity DS:
Q   DS  dS
S

 The solution will be easy if we are able to choose a closed

surface which satisfies two conditions:
1. DS is everywhere either normal or tangential to the closed
surface, so that DSdS becomes either DSdS or zero,
respectively.
2. On that portion of the closed surface for which DSdS is not
zero, DS is constant.
 For point charge ► The surface of a sphere.
 For line charge ► The surface of a cylinder.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Symmetrical Charge Distributions

15

 From the previous discussion of the

uniform line charge, only the radial
component of D is present:
D  D a 
 The choice of a surface that fulfill the
requirement is simple: a cylindrical
surface.
 Dρ is every normal to the surface of a
cylinder. It may then be closed by two
plane surfaces normal to the z axis.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Symmetrical Charge Distributions

Q   DS  dS
S

 D  dS   Dz  dS z  Dz  dS z
sides   top zL bottom z0
L 2
 D    d dz
z 0  0

 D 2 L
Q
 D 
2 L
 We know that the charge enclosed is ρLL,
L
D 
2
L
E 
2 0 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Symmetrical Charge Distributions

 The problem of a coaxial cable is almost

identical with that of the line charge.
 Suppose that we have two coaxial
cylindrical conductors, the inner of radius
a and the outer of radius b, both with
infinite length.
 We shall assume a charge distribution of
ρS on the outer surface of the inner
conductor.
 Choosing a circular cylinder of length L and radius ρ, a < ρ < b,
as the gaussian surface, we find: Q  DS 2 L
 The total charge on a length L of the inner conductor is:
L 2 aS
Q   S ad dz  2 aL  S  DS 
z 0  0 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Some Symmetrical Charge Distributions

 For one meter length, the inner conductor

has 2πaρS coulombs, hence ρL = 2πaρS,
L
D a
2

 Every line of electric flux starting from the

inner cylinder must terminate on the inner
surface of the outer cylinder:
Qouter cyl  2 aL  S ,inner cyl a
 S ,outer cyl    S ,inner cyl • Due to simplicity,
b noise immunity and
2 bL  S ,outer cyl  2 aL  S ,inner cyl broad bandwidth,
coaxial cable is still
the most common
 If we use a cylinder of radius ρ > b, means of data
then the total charge enclosed will be zero. transmission over
► There is no external field, short distances.
DS  0

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Some Symmetrical Charge Distributions

 Example
A 50-cm length of coaxial cable has an inner radius of 1 mm
and an outer radius of 4 mm. The space between conductors is
assumed to be filled with air. The total charge on the inner
conductor is 30 nC. Find the charge density on each conductor
and the expressions for E and D fields.
Qinner cyl  2 aL  S ,inner cyl Qouter cyl  2 bL  S ,outer cyl  Qinner cyl
Qinner cyl Qinner cyl
  S ,inner cyl    S ,outer cyl 
2 aL 2 bL
30 109 30 109
 
2 (103 )(0.5) 2 (4 103 )(0.5)
 9.55  C m 2  2.39  C m 2

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Some Symmetrical Charge Distributions

 S ,inner cyl D
D  a E 
 0
6
3 (9.55  10 ) 9.55 109
 10 
 8.854 10 12 
9.55 1079
 nC m 2  V m
 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

21

 We are now going to apply the methods of Gauss’s law to a

slightly different type of problem: a surface without symmetry.

 We have to choose such a very small closed surface that D is

almost constant over the surface, and the small change in D
may be adequately represented by using the first two terms of
the Taylor’s-series expansion for D.

 The result will become more nearly correct as the volume

enclosed by the gaussian surface decreases. We intend
eventually to allow this volume to approach zero.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 Consider any point P, located by a

rectangular coordinate system.
 The value of D at the point P may be
expressed in rectangular components:
D0  Dx 0a x  Dy 0a y  Dz 0a z

 We now choose as our closed

surface, the small rectangular box,
centered at P, having sides of lengths
Δx, Δy, and Δz, and apply Gauss’s
law:
 D  dS  Q
S

 D  dS  
S front

back
 
left right
 
top bottom

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 We will now consider the front surface

in detail.
 The surface element is very small, thus
D is essentially constant over this
surface (a portion of the entire closed
surface):
front
 D front  Sfront
 D front  yz a x
 D x ,front  yz
 The front face is at a distance of Δx/2 from P, and therefore:
x
D x ,front  D x 0   rate of the charge of D x with x
2
x D x
 D x0  
2 x

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 We have now, for front surface:

 x D x 
front
  D x0 
 2 x 
yz

 In the same way, the integral over the back surface can be
found as:

back
 D back  Sback
 D back    yz a x 
  D x ,back  yz

x D x  x D x 
D x ,back  D x 0 
2

x back
   D x0 
 2 x 
yz

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 If we combine the two integrals over the front and back surface,
we have: Dx

front

back

x
xyz

 Repeating the same process to the remaining surfaces, we find:

D y Dz

left

right

y
xyz
top

bottom

z
xyz

 These results may be collected to yield:

 Dx D y Dz 
 S
D  dS  
 x

y
 xyz
z 
 Dx Dy Dz 
 S
D  dS  Q  
 x

y
 v
z 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

26

 The previous equation is an approximation, which becomes

better as Δv becomes smaller, and in the following section the
volume Δv will be let to approach zero.
 For the moment, we have applied Gauss’s law to the closed
surface surrounding the volume element Δv.
 The result is the approximation stating that:
 Dx D y Dz 
Charge enclosed in volume v     v
 x y z 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 Example
Let D = y2z3 ax + 2xyz3 ay + 3xy2z2 az nC/m2 in free space.
(a) Find the total electric flux passing through the surface x = 3,
0 ≤ y ≤ 2, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 in a direction away from the origin. (b) Find
|E| at P(3,2,1). (c) Find an approximate value for the total
charge contained in an incremental sphere having a radius of 2
mm centered at P(3,2,1).
(a) ψ  S DS  dS

 y za z a z    dydz a x 
1 2
 2 3
x  2 xyz 3
a y  3 xy 2 2
z 0 y 0 x 3
1 2
  y 2 z 3 dydz
0 0
2 1 1
 y1
3
3
z 4
0 4 0

 23 nC

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

(b) D = y 2 3
z a x  2 xyz 3
a y  3 xy 2 2
z az
D P = (2) 2 (1)3 a x  2(3)(2)(1)3 a y  3(3)(2) 2 (1) 2 a z
= 4a x  12a y  36a z nC m 2

D P = DP  (4) 2  (12) 2  (36)2

 38.158 nC m 2
DP
EP 
0
38.158 nC m 2

8.854 1012
 4.31 kV m

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Application of Gauss’s Law: Differential Volume Element

 D x D y D z 
(c) Q     v
 x y z 
 Dx D y Dz 
Q p      v
 x y z 
p


 0  2 xz 3  6 xy 2 z  x 3
y2
4
3
 3
nC/m 3   2  10 3 m 3 
z 1

 4
 
 0  2 31  6 3 2  1   2  10 3 nC
3

3
2 3

 2.61 10 15 C

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Divergence

 We shall now obtain an exact relationship, by allowing the

volume element Δv to shrink to zero.
 D x D y Dz 
 
S D  dS Q
 x  y  z   v

v
 


 Dx D y Dz  lim S D  dS lim Q
 
 x  y  z   v  0 v 
v  0 v
 

 The last term is the volume charge density ρv, so that:

 Dx D y Dz  lim S D  dS
   v
 x  y  z   v  0 v
 

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and DIvergence
Divergence

Divergence
31

 Let us now consider one information that can be obtained from

the last equation:
 Dx Dy Dz 
 

 D  dS
   lim
S

 x y z  v0 v

 This equation is valid not only for electric flux density D, but
also to any vector field A to find the surface integral for a small
closed surface.
 Ax Ay Az 
 

 A  dS
   lim
S

 x y z  v0 v

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Divergence

 This operation received a descriptive name, divergence. The

divergence of A is defined as:

Divergence of A  div A  lim

 S
A  dS
v  0 v
“The divergence of the vector flux density A is the
outflow of flux from a small closed surface per unit
volume as the volume shrinks to zero.”

 A positive divergence of a vector quantity indicates a source of

that vector quantity at that point.
 Similarly, a negative divergence indicates a sink.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Divergence

Dx Dy Dz

33
div D    Rectangular
x y z

1  1 D Dz Cylindrical

div D  (  D )  
    z

1  2 1  1 D
div D  2 (r Dr )  (sin  D )  Spherical
r r r sin   r sin  

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Divergence

 Example
If D = e–xsiny ax – e–x cosy ay + 2z az, find div D at the origin and
P(1,2,3).

Dx Dy Dz

div D     e x sin y  e  x sin y  2 2
x y z

Regardless of location the divergence of D equals 2 C/m3.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Maxwell’s First Equation (Electrostatics)

 We may now rewrite the expressions developed until now:

Dx Dy Dz

div D   
x y z

Maxwell’s First Equation

div D  v Point Form of Gauss’s Law
 This first of Maxwell’s four equations applies to electrostatics
and steady magnetic field.
 Physically it states that the electric flux per unit volume leaving
a vanishingly small volume unit is exactly equal to the volume
charge density there.

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 Divergence is an operation on a vector yielding a scalar, just
like the dot product.
 We define the del operator Ñ as a vector operator:
  
 ax  a y  az
x y z

 Then, treating the del operator as an ordinary vector, we can

write:
    
  D   a x  a y  a z   ( Dxa x  Dya y  Dza z )
 x y z 
Dx Dy Dz
D   
x y z
Dx Dy Dz
div D =   D =  
x y z

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

37

 The Ñ operator does not have a specific form in other

coordinate systems than rectangular coordinate system.
 Nevertheless,
1  1 D Dz
D  (  D )   Cylindrical
    z

1  2 1  1 D
D  2 (r Dr )  (sin  D )  Spherical
r r r sin   r sin  

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 We shall now give name to a theorem that we actually have

obtained, the Divergence Theorem:
 D  dS  Q  
S vol
v dv     Ddv
vol

 The first and last terms constitute the divergence theorem:

 D  dS  
S vol
  D dv

“The integral of the normal

component of any vector field
over a closed surface is equal to
the integral of the divergence of
this vector field throughout the
volume enclosed by the closed
surface.”

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

 Example
Evaluate both sides of the divergence theorem for the field
D = 2xy ax + x2 ay C/m2 and the rectangular parallelepiped
formed by the planes x = 0 and 1, y = 0 and 2, and z = 0 and 3.

 D  dS  
S vol
  D dv Divergence Theorem
3 2 3 2
 D
S
S  dS  
0 0
(D) x 0  (dydz a x )  
0 
0
(D) x 1  (dydz a x )
3 1 3 1
  ( D) y 0  (  dxdz a y )    ( D) y2  ( dxdz a y )
0 0 0 0

But ( Dx ) x 0  0, ( Dy ) y 0  ( Dy ) y 2
3 2 3 2
 D
S
S  dS  
0 0
( Dx ) x 1 dydz  
0 
0
2 ydydz  12 C

AIUB EMWF Lec 5_6_7 /39

 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

The Vector Operator Ñ and The Divergence Theorem

  2
  D = (2 xy )  ( x )  2 y
x y
40

3 2 1
vol
  D dv  
z 0  
y 0 x 0
(2 y )dxdydz
1 2 2 3
 x0 y z0
0

 12 C

  D  dS     D dv  12 C
S vol

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 Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density, Gauss’s Law, and Divergence

Practice Problems
Problem D3.3 Given the electric flux density, D = 0.3 r2 ar nC/m3 in free space: (a) find E at point P(r =
2, θ = 25º, φ = 90º); (b) Find the total charge within the sphere r = 3; (c) find the total electric flux
leaving the sphere r = 4.
 
Problem D3.4 Calculate the total electric flux leaving the cubical surface formed by the six planes x, y,
z = ±5, if the charge distribution is: (a) two point charges, 0.1μC at (1, -2, 3) and 1/7 μC at (-1, 2, -2);
(b) a uniform line charge of πμC/m at x = -2, y = 3; (c) a uniform surface charge of 0.1μC/m 2 on the
plane y = 3x.
 
Problem D3.5 A point of 0.25μC is located at r = 0, and uniform surface charge densities are located as
follows: 2 mC/m2 at r = 1cm, and -0.6 mC/m2 at r = 1.8cm. Calculate D at (a) r = 0.5 cm; (b) r = 1.5
cm; (c) r = 2.5 cm; (d) what uniform surface charge density should be established at r = 3 cm to cause
D = 0 at r = 3.5 cm?
 
Problem D3.7 In each following parts, find a numerical value for divD at the point specified: (a) D =
(2xyz – y2) ax + (x2z – 2xy) ay + x2y az C/m3 at P(2, 3, -1); (b) D = 2ρz 2 sin2 φ aρ + ρz2 sin 2φ aφ + 2ρ2z
sin2 φ az C/m3 at P(ρ = 2, φ = 110º,z = -1); (c) D = 2r sinθ a r + r cosθ cosφ aθ – r sinφ aφ C/m3 at P(r
= 1.5, θ = 30º, φ = 50º);

Given the field D = 6ρ sin 1 2φ aρ + 1.5ρ cos 1 2φ aφ

C/m2, evaluate both
sides of the divergence theorem for the region bounded
by ρ = 2, φ = 0,
φ = AIUB π, z = 0, and z EMWF =
Lec 5_6_75.
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