SOLID FUELS

Group 7 & 8
BOREN, Joseph III ABIERTAS, Samuel
MANATAD, Sean Renier CORDOVA, Mariel
NABOYA, Richelda TALACAY, Rocky
4.1 Classification of Solid Fuels
4.2 Analysis of Solid Fuels
4.3 Empirical Relations on Coal Analysis and Calorific
Values
4.4 Combustion Calculations
4.5 Coal Combustion with No Combustibles in the Refuse
(Type I)
4.6 Coal Combustion with Combustibles in the Refuse (Type
II)
4.1 Classification of Solid Fuels
• Solid organic fuels are classified into natural and artificial
fuels.
a) Natural Solid Fuels
1) Wood - may be burned directly as a fuel or maybe converted
into charcoal or producer gas. Sawdust is sometimes burnt at
sawmills supplemented with oil to reduce fuel cost.
2) Peat – Brown fibrous mass of partially decayed plant material
that has accumulated under water logged conditions.
pressure
 3) Lignite's – Immature coals that are intermediate in composition
between peat and bituminous coals and are about 1 to 100 M years
old.

4) Coals – Compact stratified mass of mummified plant debris that

has accumulated during past geological ages about (100-300M
years old) and has been altered by processes involving biochemical
actions, submersion in water and action of the heat and
b) Artificial Solid Fuels
1) Wood Charcoal – Solid residue from the carbonization of wood
which involves heating wood strongly in the absence of
oxygen.
2)Peat Charcoal – Made by carbonizing peat at low temperature
3) Lignite Briquettes – Air dried lignites
4) Lignite Coke – Air dried and carbonized lignite
5) Coke – Carbonized coal
4.2 Analysis of Solid Fuels
a) Proximate Analysis – This important method of laboratory
examination of solid fuel is based upon their volatilization
characteristics. It involves the determination ofː
1) Moisture (M) – water expelled when the coal sample is heated
for 1 hour at 104 - 110˚C.
2) Volatile Combustible Matter (VCM) – Total loss in weight
minus the moisture in coal when coal is heated for 7 min. in a closed
crucible placed in a muffle furnace at 900˚C in the absence of air. It
includes volatile C combined water, net H,N,S.
3) Ash - Residue that remains when a weighed sample of coal is slowly
heated in an open crucible for 2 hours 500 - 815˚C.

4) Fixed Carbon (FC) – Obtained by difference from 100% of the sum

of moisture, VCM and ashː
FC=100 – M – VCM - ASH
b) Ultimate Analysis – It is a precise chemical determination of
the % by weight of the six basic components components of coalː
Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, Ash, and Oxygen (usually
obtained by difference).
c) Modified Analysis – Modifications of the ultimate analysis for
combustion calculations. It includesː
1) C, N, S, ash
2) Moisture
3) Combined water (CW) – the oxygen in the coal (not present in
moisture) is treated as though it were already combined with hydrogen.
4) Net Hydrogen (NH) – hydrogen which requires O₂ from a for
combustion.
• 
4.3 Empirical Relations on Coal Analysis and Calorific Values
ple 1ː
ace is fired with Sub-bituminous B [SubB] coal containing 10.3%
re, 34% VCM and 7.7% ash. It is also known to contain 1.2% N and
S. Its calorific value is 22MJ/kg. Calculate itsː
oximate Analysis
odified Analysis
timate Analysis
nalysis of VCM
lorific Value of VCM

ferenceː %FC = 100 – 34 – 10.3 -7.7 =48

 
%CW, 10.3%M, 7.7% ash, 1.2%N, 1.57%S
ed water and moisture
.3) * (2/18) = 3.649

.3)* (16/18) = 29.13

1.2%N, 7.7% ash, 1.2%N, 1.57%S

C – Fixed Carbon
d) Analysis of VCM
VCM wt. %
C 6.25 18.38
NH 2.44 7.18
CW 22.54 66.29
N 1.2 3.53
S 1.57 4.62
34.00
= 16.988 MJ/kg
e) Calorific Value of VCM
= CV of Coal * 100% coal – CV of Carbon * %FC % VCM
= 22(100) – 33.8(48)
= 34
4.4 Combustion Calculations
The combustion of coal may be carried out by spreading it over a grate
and firing or by introducing it as pulverized fuel. Coal and air are
brought together at a temperature sufficient to decompose the coal into
fixed carbon and volatile matter and to caused the fixed carbon to ignite.
Combustion then becomes self supportingː i.e. sufficient health is
evolved to maintain these conditions. However , the coal contains non-
combustible matter (ash) which separates from the materials that can be
gasified and is removed from the furnace as Refuse. This refuse may or
may not contain unburnt combustible.
For combustions calculations the combined % of Na and S is neglected
if the total is less than or equal to 3%.
 4.5 Coal Combustion with No Combustibles in the
Refuse (Type I)
Example 2˸
A furnace is fired with high volatile A bituminous coal whose ultimate
analysis shows 75.2% C., 5.19% H, 8.72% O, 1.5% N, 7.8% ash and 1.6% S.
60% excess air is supplied. Assume CO to CO₂ ratio of 0.175. The stack gas
leaves at 300˚C, 740 torrs. Calculateː
a) Complete analysis of the stack gas if air is supplied at 28˚C,
100 kPa and essentially dry.
b) m³ air supplied/100 kg oil
c) Calorific Value of Coal
d) % of the calorific value lost due toː
i) unburnt combustible
ii) uncondensed water
iii) sensible heat of the stack gas
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kg coal

AIR STACK GAS

28˚C
100kPa 300˚C
60% x’ss 740 torr
BURNER
FUEL
Coal
75.2%C
5.19%H
8.72%O
1.5%N
7.8% ash
1.6% S
Theo O₂ = (75.2/12) + (5.19/4) + (1.6/32) – (8.72/32) = 7.3
X’ss O₂ = 0.6 x 7.342 = 4.405
O₂ from air = 7.342 + 4.405 = 11.747
N₂ from air = 11.747 x (79/21) = 44.191
Total N₂ = 44.191 + (1.5/28) = 44.245

C converted to CO = 75.2/12 x (0.175/1.175) = 0.933

C converted to CO₂ = (75.2/12) – 0.933 = 5.333

Free O₂ = 4.405 + (0.933/2) = 4.8715

H₂O from Combustion = 5.19/2 = 2.595

• 
• 
• 
Example 3˸
A high grade semi-anthracite coal was to found contain 90.04% C, 0.79% S and 1.2%
N on an ash and moisture free basis. If this coal were burned in excess air saturated with
water at 30˚C and 105 kPa, a flue gas with the following orsat analysis results˸ 10.83%
CO₂, 1.08% CO, 0.22% H₂, 8.17% O₂ and 79.7% N₂. Calculateː
a) Ultimate analysis of coal (ash/moisture free)
b) % excess air
Solution Basisː 100 moles Dry Stack Gas (DSG)
AIR STACK GAS

30˚C
105kPa 10.83% CO₂
COAL 1.08% CO
sat’d
BURNER 0.22% H₂
8.17% O₂
90.04%C 79.7% N₂
0.79%H
1.2%N
• 
Example 4ː
A medium volatile bituminous coal(mvb) has an “as received”
analysis of 27.31% VCM, 62.52% FC, 7.11% ash, 0.95% S and 1.28%
N. Its calorific value is 32.3 MJ/kg. This coal is burned in excess air
supplied at 30˚C, 756 torrs with 80% RH. Partial orsat analysis of the
stack gas shows 9.78% CO₂ AND 2.45% CO. Calculateː
a) % excess O₂
b) Complete orsat analysis of the stack gas
c) m³ stack gas (270˚C, 768 mmHg)/kg coal
• 
• 
• 
• 
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kg coal
•a.  Proximate Analysis
% VCM = 100 – M – FC – Ash
= 100 – (34.55 + 22.91 + 7.2)
% VCM = 35.34%
% FC = 22.91%
% M = 34.55%
b. Modified Analysis
 For %CT:
%CT = 5.88 + 2.206 (CV – 0.094S) + 0.0053 [80-100()] 1.55
= 5.88 + 2.206 [16.45 – 0.094(1.1)] + 0.0053 [80 – 100()] 1.55
CT = 46.15%
• For %Net H:
CV = 0.388 C + 1.44 NH + 0.094 S
16.45 = 0.388 (46.15) + 1.44 NH + 0.094 (1.1)
%NH = 0.52%

• For %CW:
%CW = 100 – (%CT +%NH + %N + %S + %M + %Ash)
%CW = 9.91%

%CT = 46.15% ; %S = 1.1%

%NH = 0.52% ; % N = 0.57%
%CW = 9.91% ; % Ash = 7.2%
•c) Ultimate Analysis
%At H:
% At H = Net H + H in CW&M
= 0.52% + (9.91 + 34.55)()
%At H = 5.46%
% At O:
%At O = O in CW&M
= (9.91 + 34.55)( )
%At O = 39.52%
%C = 46.15% % N = 0.57%
% H = 5.46% % S = 1.1%
% O = 39.52% % Ash =7.2%
d) Analysis of VCM
C in VCM = CT – FC
= 46.15 – 22.91
C in VCM = 23.24
     
VCM Wt %
C 23.24 65.76
NH 0.52 1.47
CW 9.91 28.04
N 0.57 1.61
S 1.1 3.11
Total 35.34 100
•e)  CV of VCM
CV of VCM =
=
CV of VCM = 24.64
• 
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kmol dry stack gas
•   % excess air
a)
Sulfur Balance:
4.3%(Fuel) = (0.24)(32)
Fuel = 178.605 kg
Carbon Balance:
C from fuel = C stack gas
= 9.65 + 1.16
C from fuel = 10.81 kmol = 124.72 kg = 72.63%
For Excess O2:
Excess O2 = Free O2 – ( + )
= 9.16 - ( + )
Excess O2 = 8.29 kmol
•Nitrogen
  Balance:
N­2 from air + N2 from fuel = N2 stack gas
N2 from air = N2 stack gas – N2 from fuel
= 79.21 – 0.021(178.605)()
N2 from air = 79.08 kmol
• For %Excess air
%excess air =
=
% excess air = 65.12%
•b)  Complete Ultimate Analysis
• net H
net H = 4[O2 from air – (+ + + free O2)] + (2)H2 stack gas
= 4[21.02 – (9,65 + + 0.24 + 9.16)] + 2(0.58)
net H = 6.721 kmol = 6.721 kg = 3.76%

% CW = 100 – (%NH + %N + %Ash + %S + %C)

= 100 – (3.76 + 2.1 + 14.1 + 4.3 + 72.63)
% CW = 3.11%
 Complete Ultimate Analysis
•   %H in CW = 3.11%()    
Coal %
% H in CW = 0.345%
C 72.63
% H from coal = 3.76 + 0.345 H 4.11
% H from coal = 4.11% O 2.76
%O in CW = 3.11%() N 2.1
S 4.3
%O in CW = 2.762%
Ash 14.1
c) m3 air/kg coal Total 100
m3 air/kg coal = =
m3 air/kg coal = 13.57 m3/kg
•d)  m3 SG/kg coal
H2O formed = at H/2 -
= – 0.58
H2O formed = 3.089 kmol
m3 SG/kg coal = =
m3 SG/kg coal = 26.26 m3/kg
• 
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kg coal
• 
• 
%O = %CW&M(16/18)
= 22.42(16/18)
% O = 19.93%

Mass ⟶ kmole
nC = m_C/(atomic weight) = 57.588/12
= 4.799 kmol
nH = m_H/(atomic weight) = (2.592+2.491)/1
= 5.083 kmol
no_2 = m_O/(2(atomic weight)) = 19.929/(2(16))
= 0.623 kmol
• 
•   Excess O2 = Theo O2(% excess air)
= 8.461 kmols
O2 from air = Theo(1 + %excess air) = 5.641(2.5)
= 14.102 kmols
N2 from air = O2 from air() = 14.102() = 53.05 kmols
m3 dry air/kg coal =
=
=m3 dry air/kg coal = 16.65 m3/kg
• 
Gas n (kmol) %
CO2 3.999 5.76

CO 0.8 1.15

SO2 0.19375 0.28

O2 8.861 12.75

N2 53.093 76.41

H2O 2.542 3.66

Total 69.488 100

•  m3 flue gas/kg coal
c)
m3 flue gas/kg coal = =
= m3 flue gas/kg coal = 28.88 m3/kg
d) i) % CV lost due to unburnt combustibles
% CV unburnt combustibles = [ ][nCOHC] x 100%
= [ ][0.8(283.18)] x 100%
% CV unburnt combustibles = 9.53%
•ii)  % CV lost due to Uncondensed water vapour
% CV uncondensed water vapor = [ ][nLC] x 100%
= [ ][2..542(44.04)] x 100
% CV uncondensed water vapor = 4.71%
         
iii) % CV lost due to Sensible Heat Gas A B C D
(1000) (1000000 (0.00001
Heat Capacity (kJ/kmol-K) ) )
CO2 5.457 1.045 --- -1.157
CO 3.376 0.557 --- -0.031
SO2 5.699 0.801 --- -1.015
O2 3.639 0.506 --- -0.227
N2 3.28 0.593 --- 0.04
H2O 3.47 1.45   0.121
• 
𝐶𝑃 𝐶 ሺ4𝑇𝑎𝑚 𝑇 2 − 𝑇1 𝑇2 ሻ 𝐷      
= 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑇𝑎𝑚 + + Gas n (kmol) Cp nCp (kJ/K)
8.314 3 (𝑇1 𝑇2 ) (kJ/kmol-K)

CO2 3.999 42.606 170.39

CO 0.8 29.778 23.817

SO2 0.19375 44.567 8.635

O2 8.861 30.728 272.278

  = 513.15 K
N2 53.093 29.487 1565.555
= 298.15 K
H 2O 2.542 34.397 87.424
= 405.65 K Total 69.488   2128.0994
•   %CVsensible heat = %
=%
%CVsensible heat = 19.24%
4) A boiler is fired with coal containing 72.63% C, 14% ash, 1.6% N, and
1.2% S burnt under conditions that the elimination of combustibles from
the refuse is complete. The air enters the furnace at 250C, 760 mm Hg with
80% RH. The flue gas goes to the stack at 2800C and 110 kPa. The
average flue gas orsat analysis is 8.41% CO2, 2.52% CO, 0.76% H2, and
9.86% O2. Calculate the following:

a) % excess air
b) Ultimate Analysis of Coal
c) m3 flue gas/kg coal
d) m3 air/kg coal
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kmol DSG
• 
• 
• 
•  Complete Ultimate Analysis
   
Coal %
C 72.63
H 4.31
O 6.26
N 1.6
S 1.2
Ash 14
Total 100
• 
• 
5) A certain coal is pulverized and burnt in a burner. Analysis of coal
showed 70% C, 10.7% ash, and 1.2% M. The refuse is substantially
free of combustible. A sample of the flue gas collected and analyzed in
an orsat apparatus over mercury contains 8.3% CO2, 3.32% CO,
0.32% SO2, 3.32% H2 and 9.53% O2. Air supplied is at 300C, 1 atm
and saturated with water. Calculate:

a) % excess O2
b) Complete Ultimate Analysis of coal
c) m3 flue gas (2500C, 1 atm)/kg coal
Solutionː
Basisː 100 kmol KSG
• 
• 
• 
• 

Complete Ultimate Analysis

   
Coal %
C 70
H 4.69
O 8.27
N 1.2
S 5.14
Ash 10.7
Total 100
• 
• 
4.6 Coal Combustion with Combustibles in the Refuse (Type II)

More often in the combustion of solid fuels, the furnace ashes contain a
significant amount of unburnt combustible material collectively called
the REFUSE. In many instances, to be able to analyze the refuse
better, water is sprinkled into it to form what is called a Wetted Refuse.
In the combustion calculations, these water is neglected.
There are four cases of Combustible lost in the
refuse:

Case A – Uncoked Coal Lost in the Refuse

Uncoked coal is coal that has lost only its moisture content. When
uncoked coal goes to the refuse, its VCM and FC content are the same
as the original coal fired called the Green Coal.

Thus the following relation is true:

(FC/VCM) in green coal = (FC/VCM) in the refuse

Case B – Coked coal lost in the refuse
Coked coal is coal that has lost both its moisture and VCM
content. Thus an analysis of the refuse contains negligible volatile
combustible matter; Carbon and ash are the main constituents. In
general, if the %VCM in the refuse is less than 0.2%, it may be
assumed to be essentially carbon.
Case C – Combination of Coked and Uncoked coal in
the Refuse
The refuse is a mixture of ash, VCM and FC. The uncoked coal that
goes into the refuse contributes both VCM and FC; the coked coal that
goes into the refuse contributes only the FC.

Thus the following relation is true:

(FC/VCM) in green coal ≠ (FC/VCM) in refuse

Partially Coked Coal
Partially coked coal is coal that has lost all its moisture content but not
all VCM. Analysis of the refuse shows significant VCM but the ratio
of FC to VCM in the green coal is not equal to the ratio of FC to VCM
in the refuse.
Example 5: A furnace burns coal containing 4.1% M, 24% VCM, 63%
FC, 1.2% N, 1.8% S and 8.9% ash. Its calorific value is 32 MJ/kg.
Determine the %VCM, C and Calorific Value Lost in the refuse if it
analyzes:

• 4.8% VCM, 12.6% FC and 82.6% ASH

• 24% C and 76% ash
• 7.5% VCM, 29.2% FC and 63.3% ash
Solution: 100 kg coal
Test for the Case
(63/24) ? = (12.6/48)
2.625 = 2.625 Case A: Uncoked Coal
Ash balance: 0.826 x WT Refuse = 8.9
WT Refuse = 10.775
Wt VCM in Refuse = 0.048 x 10.775 = 0.5172
Wt FC in Refuse = 0.126 x 10.775 = 1.3577
%VCM lost = (0.5172/24) x 100 = 2.155 % ANS
Calderwood Equation:
%C = 5.88 + 2.206 [32 – 0.094(1.8)] + 0.0053 [80 – 100
(VCM/FC)]1.55
= 77.83
%C in the VCM = (77.83 - 63) / 24 x 100 = 61.79%
Wt C in the refuse = FC in refuse + C in the VCM in refuse
= 1.3577 + 0.6179 (0.5172) = 1.677
%C lost = (1.677/77.83) x 100 = 2.155%
CV of VCM = 44.608 MJ/kg
CV lost in the refuse = 33.8 (1.3577) + 44.608 (0.5172) = 68.9615
%CV lost in the refuse = [68.9615 / (32 x 100)] x 100 = 2.155%
Note: Analysis of %net H, %CW lost, %N lost, %S lost
%net H lost = x 100 = 2.155%
%CW lost = x 100 = 2.155%
%N lost = x 100 = 2.155%
%S lost = x 100 = 2.155%

Thus for uncoked coal:

%VCM lost = %FC lost = %C lost = %CV lost = %net H lost
= %CW lost = %N lost = %S lost in the refuse
Refuse Analysis: 24% FC and 76% ash

Since no VCM is present, the type of combustible is Coked Coal

Ash bal: 0.76 x Wt refuse = 8.9

Wt refuse = 11.71

Wt C in the refuse = 11.71 (0.24) = 2.81

%C lost in the refuse = (2.81/77.83) x 100 = 3.61% ANS.

%CV lost in the refuse = [(2.81 x 33.80 /(100 x 32)] x 100

= 2.97% ANS.
Refuse analysis: 7.5% VCM, 29.2% FC and 63.6% ash

Test: (63/24) ? = (29.2/7.5)

2.62 ≠ 3.893, Case C: coked and uncoked coal

Ash bal: 0.63 x Wt refuse = 8.9

Wt refuse = 14

Wt of VCM in refuse = 0.75 x 14 = 1.05

Wt of FC in refuse = 0.29 x 14 = 4.088

%VCM lost = (1.05 / 24) x 100 = 4.375% ANS.

From a.)

%C in coal = 77.83%: %C in VCM = 61.79%, CV = 44.608

Wt of C in refuse = 4.077 + 0.6179 (1.05) = 4.737

%C lost in the refuse = (4.737 / 77.83) x 100 = 6.08% ANS

CV lost in the refuse = 4.088 (33.8) + 1.05 (44.608) = 185.015

%CV lost = [185.015 / (32x 100)] = 5.78% ANS.

Note: Analysis of %net H, %CW lost, %N lost, %S lost

%net H lost = x 100 = 4.375%

%CW lost = x 100 = 4.375%

%N lost = x 100 = 4.375%

%S lost = x 100 = 4.375%

Thus for Case C: %C lost ≠ %VCM lost ≠ %CV lost ≠ %net H lost

%net H lost = %CW lost = %N lost = %S lost = %VCM lost#

Example 6: A boiler is fired with coal analyzing 13.8% VCM, 3% M,
1.2% S, negligible N and a calorific of 32.95 MJ/kg. The dry refuse
removed analyzes 5% VCM, 27% FC and 68% ash. 60% excess air is
supplied at 32°C, 758 mmHg with 85% RH. 90% of the carbon gasified
burns to CO2, the restto CO. The molal ratio of H2 to CO is 2:9.
Calculate:
• %C lost in the refuse
• m3 air/kg coal
• Orsat analysis of the stack gas
• m3 stack gas/kg coal
• total %CV lost
Test for the type of combustible: (74.6/13.8) ? = (27/5)
5.406 = 5.4; Uncoked coal
Wt of VCM in the refuse = (8.6 / 0.68) x 0.05 = 0.63235
%VCM lost in the refuse = (0.63235 / 13.8) x 100 = 4.58%
%C lost in the refuse = 4.58%
%FC = 74.6 (by difference)

By Calderwood Equation:
%C = 5.88 + 2.206 (32.95 – ( 0.094)(1.2) + 0.0053[80 – 100 ]1.55
= 81.46
By Dulongs Formula:
32.95 = 0.338 (81.46) + 1.44 (netH) + 0.094 (1.2)
%net H = 3.68
%CW = 100 – 81.46 – 3.68 – 3 – 8.6 – 1.2 - = 2.06
Moisture = 3
Theo O2 = (81.46/12) + (3.68/4) = 7.7083
X’ss O2 = 0.6 x 7.7083 = 4.625
O­2 from air = 7.7083 +4.625 = 12.333
N2 from air = 12.333 x (79/21) = 46.3967
At 32; log VP = 7.96681 – 1668.21 / (228 + 32) ;
VP = 33.532 mmHg
H2O from air = (12.333 + 46.3967) x
= 2.437
= 15.348
At C gasified = (1 – 0.0458) (81.46/12) = 6.477
C converted to CO2 = 0.9 x 6.477 = 5.83
C converted to CO = 0.1 x 6.477 = 0.647
H2 in the stack gas = 0.647 (2/9) = 0.144
Free O2 = x’ss O2 + + + + at C lost in refuse
Free O2 = 4.625 + + + +
= 5.37
H2O in Stack Gas = (1 – 0.0458) + (1 – 0.0458) + - 1.44 + 2.437
= 4.325
 END…
Thank you and More power. :D