Unit II

BASIC
INTERNETWORKING
Presentation by:
KAYTHRY P.
Assistant Professor, ECE
SSN College of Engineering
 Objectives
 At end of this session, learners able to answer,
 What is an internet?
 What is sub netting and addressing?
 Introduction
• By using switches and bridges it is possible to build a
large network but it is only up to certain limit.
• In order to further increase the scalability of network ,
we connect multiple networks by a device called as
“Router”
• Hence the network layer comes in to picture which
takes the responsibility of packet delivery from source
to destination among multiple networks
• internet – logical network built out of collection of
physical networks.
• Network of networks
• Routers / gateways - interconnect networks
• internetwork Internetworking
– collection of
networks
– interconnecte
d to provide
host-host to
packet
delivery
service.
internetwork :
H represents hosts
and R represents
routers
 Basic Concepts
• IP – Internet Protocol
• CIDR – Classless Inter Domain Routing
• ARP – Address Resolution Protocol
• DHCP – Dynamic Host Control Protocol
• ICMP – Internet Control Message Protocol
 Internetworking
• What is IP
– IP stands for Internet Protocol, runs over anything
– Key tool used today to build scalable, heterogeneous
internetworks
– It runs on all the nodes in a collection of networks
– It defines the infrastructure that allows these nodes
and networks to function as a single logical
internetwork

A simple internetwork showing the protocol layers

 IP Service Model
• Packet Delivery Model
– Datagram - Connectionless model for data delivery
– Best-effort delivery (unreliable service)
• packets are lost
• packets are delivered out of order
• duplicate copies of a packet are delivered
• packets can be delayed for a long time
• Global Addressing Scheme
– Provides a way to identify all hosts in the
internetwork
Position of IPv4 in TCP/IP protocol suite
Packet Format
 Packet Format
– Version (4): currently 4 (IPv4)
– Hlen (4): length of header in 32-bit words
– TOS (8): type of service – allow the packets to
be treated differently based on application
needs.
– Length (16): number of bytes in this datagram
– Counts bytes rather than words
– Maximum size of an IP datagram (65,535
bytes).
– Physical network may not support such long
packets
– Solution – Fragmentation & Reassembly
 Packet Format
– Ident (16): used by fragmentation
– Flags/Offset (16): used by fragmentation
– TTL (8): time to live, number of hops this
datagram has traveled, catch a packet (loop)
- 64
– Protocol (8): demux key identifies the
higher level protocol to which IP packet
should be passed (TCP=6, UDP=17)
– Checksum (16): of the header only
– DestAddr & SrcAddr (32)
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
• Each network has some MTU (Maximum
Transmission Unit)
– Ethernet (1500 bytes), FDDI (4500 bytes)

• Strategy
– Fragmentation occurs in a router when it receives a
datagram that it wants to forward over a network
which has (MTU < datagram)
– Reassembly is done at the receiving host
– All the fragments carry the same identifier in the
Ident field
– Fragments are self-contained datagrams
– IP does not recover from missing fragments
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

IP datagrams traversing the sequence of physical networks

 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
Points to be noted:
• Each fragment – itself a self-contained IP
datagram that is transmitted over a sequence of
physical networks, independent of other
fragments
• IP datagrams are re-encapsulated for each
physical network over which it travels.
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly

Header fields used in IP fragmentation. (a) Unfragmented packet; (b) fragmented

packets.
 Global Addresses
• Properties
– globally unique
– hierarchical: network + host (logical structure of
internetwork )
– Network part- identifies network to which host is attached
– Host part – identifies each host uniquely on the network
– 4 Billion IP address, half are A type, ¼ is B type, and 1/8 is
C type
• Format (32 bit long – in all cases)
• Dot notation
– 10.3.2.4
– 128.96.33.81
– 192.12.69.77
 IPv4 Address Space
• IPV4 address space is the total number of
addresses used by the protocol. „
• „ IPv4 uses 32-bit address: „ The address
space=232=4,294,967,296 ( more than 4
billion) „ This means, if there were no
restrictions, more than 4 billions devices
would be connected to the network
Dotted-decimal notation and binary
notation for an IPv4 address
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation
to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number and add dots for separation.
27 = 126 class A
networks
Each
IP Addresses
of them
accommodate
----- 224 -2 ( 16
million) hosts
Class B – 65,534
hosts
Class C – 256 unique
host identifiers, 0
not valid, 255 –
broadcasting,
remaining 254
attached to hosts
(221)
• In classful is divided into five classes, the
address space : A, B, C, D, and E
• Find the class of each address.
• a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
• b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
• c. 14.23.120.8
• d. 252.5.15.111
Number of blocks and block size in classful IPv4 addressing
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.
 IP Datagram Forwarding
• Strategy
– every datagram contains destination's address
– if directly connected to destination network, then forward
to host
– if not directly connected to destination network, then
forward to some router
– forwarding table maps network number into next hop
– each host has a default router
– each router maintains a forwarding table
 Blocks in class A

Millions of class A addresses are wasted

Blocks in class B
 Blocks in class C
The number of addresses in class C is smaller than the needs of
most organizations
 A network with two levels of hierarchy
(not sub netted eg. Class B)

Problem - Address depletion : with Class A, B &

C
Solution - Subnetting : Class A & B block is
divided into several subnets
A network with three levels of
hierarchy (subnetted)
Addresses in a network with and
without subnetting
Default masks

32
Default mask and subnet mask
• The network address is
the beginning address of
each block.
• It can be found by
applying the default
mask to any of the
addresses in the block
(including itself). It
retains the netid of the
block and sets the hostid
to zero
• Add another Subnetting
level to
address/routing
hierarchy: subnet
• Subnet masks
single network
number can be
shared among
multiple
networks
involves
configuring all
the modes on
each subnets.
• Subnet – visible
 Subnetting

• Forwarding Table at Router R1

 Subnetting
Forwarding Algorithm
D = destination IP address
for each entry < SubnetNum, SubnetMask, NextHop>
D1 = SubnetMask & D
if D1 = SubnetNum (sending host – destination in
same subnet)
if NextHop is an interface
deliver datagram directly to destination
else
deliver datagram to NextHop (a router)
What is the subnetwork address if the
destination address is 200.45.34.56 and the
subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
Solution
We apply the AND operation on the address and the
subnet mask.
Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000
Subnet Mask ➡ 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.

37
 Comparison of a default
mask and a subnet mask

Default masking is a process that extracts the network

address from an IP address.
Subnet masking is a process that extracts the subnetwork
address from an IP address
 Classless Addressing
• Classless Inter-Domain Routing
– A technique that addresses two scaling concerns in the
Internet
• The growth of backbone routing table as more and more
network numbers need to be stored in them
• Potential exhaustion of the 32-bit address space
– Address assignment efficiency
• Arises because of the IP address structure with class A, B,
and C addresses
• Forces us to hand out network address space in fixed-size
chunks of three very different sizes
– A network with two hosts needs a class C address
» Address assignment efficiency = 2/255 = 0.78
– A network with 256 hosts needs a class B address
» Address assignment efficiency = 256/65535 = 0.39
 Classless Addressing
• Exhaustion of IP address space centers on
exhaustion of the class B network numbers
• Solution
– Say “NO” to any Autonomous System (AS) that
requests a class B address unless they can show a
need for something close to 64K addresses
– Instead give them an appropriate number of class
C addresses
– For any AS with at least 256 hosts, we can
guarantee an address space utilization of at least
50%
• What is the problem with this solution?
 Classless Addressing
• Problem with this solution
– Excessive storage requirement at the routers.
• If a single AS has, say 16 class C network
numbers assigned to it,
– Every Internet backbone router needs 16 entries in
its routing tables for that AS
– This is true, even if the path to every one of these
networks is the same
• If we had assigned a class B address to the AS
– The same routing information can be stored in one
entry
– Efficiency = 16 × 255 / 65, 536 = 6.2%
 Classless Addressing
• In classless Addressing, variable length blocks
are used that belong to no classes. We can
have block of 1 address, 2 addresses, 4
addresses, 128 addresses and so on.
•
• Classless Inter Domain Routing (CIDR) tries
to balance the desire to minimize the number
of routes that a router needs to know against
the need to hand out addresses efficiently .

• CIDR uses aggregate routes

– Uses a single entry in the forwarding table to tell
the router how to reach a lot of different networks
– Breaks the rigid boundaries between address
classes
 Classless Addressing
• Consider an AS with 16 class C network
numbers.
• Instead of handing out 16 addresses at random,
hand out a block of contiguous class C addresses
• Suppose we assign the class C network numbers
from 192.4.16 through 192.4.31
• Observe that top 20 bits of all the addresses in
this range are the same (11000000 00000100
0001)
– We have created a 20-bit network number (which is
in between class B network number and class C
number in terms of no. of hosts that it can support)
 Classless Addressing
– We get high address efficiency of handing out
address in chunks smaller than class B network
and a single network prefix that can be used in
forwarding tables.
• Requires to hand out blocks of class C
addresses that share a common prefix
 Classless Addressing
• In IPv4 addressing, a block of
addresses can be defined as x.y.z.t /n
• x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses and the /n
defines the mask
• The convention is to place a /n after the prefix,
where n is the prefix length in bits
• For example, the 20-bit prefix for all the
networks 192.4.16 through 192.4.31 is
represented as 192.4.16/20
• By contrast, if we wanted to represent a single
class C network number, which is 24 bits long,
we would write it 192.4.16/24
A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization
 Classless Addressing
• How do the routing protocols handle this
classless addresses
– It must understand that the network number may
be of any length
• Represent network number with a single pair
<length, value>
All routers must understand CIDR addressing
• The first address in the block can be found by
setting the rightmost 32 − n bits to 0s.
• A block of addresses is granted to a small
organization. One of the addresses is
205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in
the block?
Solution
• The binary representation of the given address
is
11001101
If we set 32−2800010000
rightmost 00100101
bits to 0, we00100111
get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or 205.16.37.32.
 Classless Addressing
• The last address in the block can be found by setting
the rightmost 32 − n bits to 1s.
• A block of addresses is granted to a small
organization. One of the addresses is
205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in the
block?
Solution
• The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
• If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47
 Classless Addressing
• The number of addresses in the block can be
found by using the formula 232−n.
• A block of addresses is granted to a small
organization. We know that one of the
addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. find the no. of
address in the block?
• Solution:
• The first address in a block is normally not
assigned to any device; it is used as the
network address that represents the
organization to the rest of the world.
• Each address in the block can be considered as
a two-level hierarchical structure:
– the leftmost n bits (prefix) define the network
– the rightmost 32 − n bits define the host
 Classless Addressing

 Customer share a common, shorter

address prefix
 Aggregation of routes
 ISP advertise single route to reach all
the 8 customers with common 21 bits
Route aggregation with CIDR
prefix they share.
 IP Forwarding Revisited
• IP forwarding mechanism assumes that it can
find the network number in a packet and then
look up that number in the forwarding table

• We need to change this assumption in case of

CIDR

• CIDR means that prefixes may be of any

length, from 2 to 32 bits
 IP Forwarding Revisited
• It is also possible to have prefixes in the
forwarding tables that overlap
– Some addresses may match more than one prefix
• For example, we might find both 171.69 (a 16 bit
prefix) and 171.69.10 (a 24 bit prefix) in the
forwarding table of a single router
• A packet destined to 171.69.10.5 clearly matches
both prefixes.
– The rule is based on the principle of “longest match”
• 171.69.10 in this case
• A packet destined to 171.69.20.5 would match
171.69 and not 171.69.10
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Sending node knows:
– destination host or receiving node IP address
– IP address of the next hop router or default router
– Each router expect the last one in the path gets the
IP address of the next router in the forwarding
table .
– Last router knows the IP address of the destination
host.
– But IP address of the next node is not helpful in
moving the frame through a link
– We need link layer address of the next node
ARP - Map IP addresses into physical addresses or
logical link address and passes into data link layer
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

• Techniques
– encode physical address in host part of IP address
– table-based
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
– table of IP to physical address bindings
– broadcast request if IP address not in table
– target machine responds with its physical address
– table entries are discarded if not refreshed
 ARP Packet Format

– HardwareType: type of physical network (e.g., Ethernet)

– ProtocolType: type of higher layer protocol (e.g., IP)
–
• Notes
Host Configurations
– Ethernet addresses are configured into network by
network adopter manufacturer and they are unique
– IP addresses must be unique on a given
internetwork but also must reflect the structure of
the internetwork
– Most host Operating Systems provide a way to
manually configure the IP information for the host
– Drawbacks of manual configuration
• A lot of work to configure all the hosts in a large
network
• Configuration process is error-prune
– Automated Configuration Process is required
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP)
• DHCP server is responsible for providing
configuration information to hosts
• There is at least one DHCP server for an
administrative domain
• DHCP server maintains a pool of available
addresses
• Newly booted or attachedDHCP
host sends
DHCPDISCOVER
message to a special IP
address (255.255.255.255)
• One DHCP server not
required for each network.
(DHCP relay agent for one
network – configured with
IP address of DHCP
server)
• DHCP relay agent unicasts
the message to DHCP
server and waits for the
 Internet Control Message Protocol
• (ICMP)
Defines a collection of error messages that are sent
back to the source host whenever a router or host is
unable to process an IP datagram successfully
– Destination host unreachable due to link /node
failure
– Reassembly process failed
– TTL had reached 0 (so datagrams don't cycle
forever)
– IP header checksum failed

• ICMP-Redirect
– From router to a source host
– Eg. It tells source, a better route to the destination
 Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP)
• ICMP provides two widely used debugging
tools:
– Ping : uses ICMP echo messages to determine if a
node is reachable and alive

– Traceout : uses non-intuitive technique to

determine the set of routers along the path to a
destination.