Chapter 4 Linear Transformations

4.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

4.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
4.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
4.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
 4.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

A linear transformation is a function T that maps a vector space
V into another vector space W:

T : V 
mapping
W, V , W : vector space

V: the domain of T
W: the co-domain of T

Two axioms of linear transformations

(1) T (u  v)  T (u)  T (v), u, v  V
(2) T (cu)  cT (u), c  R

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
Image of v under T:

If v is in V and w is in W such that

T ( v)  w
Then w is called the image of v under T .

the range of T:
The set of all images of vectors in V.
V
range(T )  {T ( v ) | v  V }

the pre-image of w:
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w.

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
Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving.
preserving

T (u  v)  T (u)  T (v) T (cu)  cT (u)

Addition Addition Scalar Scalar

in V in W multiplication multiplication
in V in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V  V from a vector space

into itself is called a linear operator.
operator

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
Ex: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2
T (v1 , v2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v 2 )

Pf:
u  (u1 , u2 ), v  (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1) Vector addition :
u  v  ( u1 , u2 )  ( v1 , v2 )  ( u1  v1 , u2  v2 )

T (u  v )  T (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
 ((u1  v1 )  (u2  v2 ), (u1  v1 )  2(u 2  v2 ))
 ((u1  u 2 )  (v1  v2 ), (u1  2u2 )  (v1  2v2 ))
 (u1  u2 , u1  2u2 )  (v1  v2 , v1  2v2 )
 T (u)  T ( v )
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(2) Scalar multiplication
cu  c(u1 , u2 )  (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu)  T (cu1 , cu 2 )  (cu1  cu 2 , cu1  2cu 2 )
 c(u1  u 2 , u1  2u 2 )
 cT (u)
Therefore, T is a linear transformation.

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
Ex: Functions that are not linear transformations
(a ) f ( x)  sin x
sin( x1  x2 )  sin( x1 )  sin( x2 )  f ( x )  sin x is not a
sin( 2  3 )  sin( 2 )  sin( 3 ) linear transform ation

(b) f ( x)  x 2  f ( x )  x 2 is not a linear

( x1  x2 ) 2  x12  x22 transform ation
(1  2) 2  12  2 2

(c ) f ( x )  x  1
f ( x1  x2 )  x1  x2  1
f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  ( x1  1)  ( x2  1)  x1  x2  2
f ( x1  x2 )  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 )  f ( x )  x  1 is not a
linear transform ation
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
Notes: Two uses of the term “linear”.

(1) f ( x)  x  1 is called a linear function because its

graph is a line. But

(2) f ( x)  x  1 is not a linear transformation from a

vector space R into R because it preserves neither
vector addition nor scalar multiplication.
multiplication

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
Zero transformation:
T :V  W T ( v)  0, v  V

Identity transformation:
T :V  V T ( v )  v, v  V

Thm 4.1:
4.1 (Properties of linear transformations)
T : V  W , u, v  V
(1) T (0)  0
(2) T ( v)  T ( v )
(3) T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v )
(4) If v  c1v1  c2 v2  L  cn vn
Then T (v)  T (c1v1  c2v2  L  cnv n )
 c1T ( v1 )  c2T ( v2 )  L  cnT ( v n )
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
Ex: (Linear transformations and bases)
Let T : R 3  R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0)  (2,1,4)
T (0,1,0)  (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1)  (0,3,1)
Find T(2, 3, -2).
Sol:
(2,3,2)  2(1,0,0)  3(0,1,0)  2(0,0,1)
T (2, 3, 2)  2T (1, 0, 0)  3T (0,1, 0)  2T (0, 0,1) (T is a L.T.)
 2(2, 1, 4)  3(1, 5, 2)  2(0, 3,1)
 (7, 7, 0)

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
Thm 4.2:
4.2 (The linear transformation given by a matrix)
Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v )  Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm.

Note: R n ve c to r R m ve c to r
 a11 a12 L a1n   v1   a11v1  a12v 2  L  a1 nv n 
a a22 L a2 n   v 2   a21v1  a22v 2  L  a2 nv n 
Av   21

 M M M  M  M 
    
 am 1 a m 2 L amn   v n   am 1v1  am 2v 2  L  a mnv n 
T ( v )  Av
T : Rn 
 R m
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
Rotation in the plane
Show that the L.T. T : R 2  R 2 given by the matrix
 cos   sin  
A 
 sin  cos  
has the property that it rotates every vector in R2
counterclockwise about the origin through the angle .

Sol:
(polar coordinates)
r ： the length of v
 ： the angle from the
positive x-axis
counterclockwise to the
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 cos   sin    x  cos   sin   r cos  
T ( v )  Av      
 sin  cos      sin 
y cos    r sin  
 r cos  cos   r sin  sin  

r sin  cos   r cos  sin  
r cos(   )

 r sin(   ) 
r ： the length of T(v)
 + ： the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise
to
the vector
Thus, T(v) T(v) that results from rotating the vector v
is the vector
counterclockwise through the angle .

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
A projection in R3
The linear transformation T : R 3  R 3 is given by
1 0 0
A  0 1 0 
 
 0 0 0 
is called a projection in R3.

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
A linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m
T ( A)  AT (T : M mn  M nm )
Show that T is a linear transformation.
Sol:
A, B  M mn
T ( A  B )  ( A  B)T  AT  B T  T ( A)  T ( B )

T (cA)  (cA)T  cAT  cT ( A)

Therefore, T is a linear transformation from Mmn into Mn m.

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4.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

Kernel of a linear transformation T:
Let T : V  W be a linear transformation

Then the set of all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v )  0 is

called the kernel of T and is denoted by ker(T).
ker

ker(T )  {v | T (v)  0, v  V }

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
Finding the kernel of a linear transformation

 x1 
 1  1 2   
T (x)  Ax    x (T : R 3
 R 2
) ker(T )  ?
 2
 1 2 3   
 x3 
Sol:
ker(T )  {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0,0), x  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  R 3}
 x1 
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (0, 0)   1  1  2  x2   0
 1 2 3    0
 x3 
 1  1  2 0  G . E  1 0 1 0 
 1 2    
 3 0   0 1 1 0 
 x1   t  1
 
  x2     t   t  1  ker(T )  {t (1, 1,1) | t  real number }
 
 x3   t   1   span{(1, 1,1)} = Nullspace of A

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
Thm 4.3: The kernel is a subspace of V.
The kernel of a linear transformation T : V  W is a subspace
of the domain V.
Pf: Q T (0)  0 (Theorem 4.1)
 ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V
Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . then
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v )  0  0  0  u  v  ker(T )
T (cu)  cT (u)  c0  0  cu  ker(T )
Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V .

Corollary to Thm 4.3:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T given by T (x)  Ax
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax  0
T (x)  Ax (a linear transformation T : R n  R m )

 ker (T )  NS ( A)  x | Ax  0, x  R n  (a subspace of R n )
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 Finding a basis for the kernel
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T (x)  Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1 2 1 1 
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A  Find a basis for ker(T) as a
 1 0 2 0 1  subspace of R5.
 
0 0 0 2 8
1 2 01 1 0  1 0 20 1 0 
2 1 3 1 0 0  G . E  0 1 1 0 2 0 
Sol:
 A 0   1 0 2 0 1 0 
 
0 0 0 1 4 0
   
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
s t
 x1   2 s  t   2   1 
x    1 2
 2  s  2 t      B  {( 2, 1, 1, 0, 0) and
 x   x3    s   s  1   t  0  (1, 2, 0,  4, 1)} is a basis
       
x
 4   4 t   0   4  of the kernel of T
 x5   t   0   1 
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
Thm 4.4:
4.4 The range of T is a subspace of W
The range of a linear transformation T : V  W is a subspace of W .
Pf: Q T (0)  0 (Thm 4.1)  range(T ) is a nonempty subset of W
Let T (u) and T ( v) be vector in the range of T
T (u  v)  T (u)  T ( v )  range(T ) (u  V , v  V  u  v  V )
T (cu)  cT (u)  range(T ) (u  V  c u  V )
Therefore, range(T ) is a subspace of W

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 Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. represented by T ( x)  Ax,
then the range of T is equal to the column space of A
 range(T )  CS ( A)  { Ax  x  R n }

Rank of a linear transformation T: V→W:
rank (T )  the dimension of the range of T

Nullity of a linear transformation T: V→W:
nullity(T )  the dimension of the kernel of T

Note:
Let T : R n  R m be the L.T. represented by T (x)  Ax, then
rank (T )  rank ( A)  dim[CS ( A)]
nullity(T )  nullity ( A)  dim[ NS ( A)]
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Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation
Let T : R 5  R 4 be defined by T ( x)  Ax, where x  R 5 and
1 2 1 1
0
2 1 3 1 0 
A Find a basis for the range(T).
 1 0 2 0 1 
 
0 0 0 2 8
Sol: 1 2 0 1  1 1 0 2 0 1 
2 1 3 1 0  G . E  0 1 1 0 2 
A    B
 1 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 4
   
0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 0 0
c1 c2 c3 c4 c5 w1 w 2 w 3 w 4 w 5
  w1 , w2 , w4  is a basis for CS ( B )
 c1 , c2 , c4  is a basis for CS ( A)
  (1, 2,  1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2) is a basis for the range of T
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
Thm 4.5:4.5 Sum of rank and nullity
Let T : V  W be a L.T. from an n - dimensional
vector space V into a vector space W ,
then rank (T )  nullity (T )  n,
i .e ., dim(range of T )  dim(kernel of T )  dim(domain of T )

Pf: Let T is represented by a matrix Amn

Assume rank ( A)  r ( i .e ., the number of leading var iables )
(1) rank (T )  dim(range of T )  dim(column space of A)
 rank ( A)  r Q T ( x )  Ax
(2) nullity(T )  dim(kernel of T )  dim(solution space of A)
 nr
 rank (T )  nullity (T )  r  ( n  r )  n
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
Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation
Find the rank and nullity of the L.T. T : R 3  R 3 define by
 1 0 2 
A   0 1 1 
 0 0 0 
Sol:
rank (T )  rank ( A)  2
nullity(T )  dim(domain of T )  rank (T )  3  2  1

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
One-to-one:
A function T : V  W is called one-to-one if the preimage of
every w in the range of T consists of a single vector.
T is one-to-one if and only if for all u and v in V,
T(u)=T(v) implies that u=v.

one-to-one not one-to-one

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
Onto:
A function T : V  W is said to be onto if every element
in W has a preimage in V
i.e., T is onto W when range(T)=W.
=W

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
Thm 4.6: (One-to-one linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T.,
T is one - to - one if and only if ker (T )  {0}
i.e., The addtive unit element in V is mapped onto
the additive unit element in W.
Pf: Suppose T is 1 - 1
Then T (v)  0 can have only one solution : v  0
i.e., ker (T )  {0}

Suppose ker (T )  {0} and T ( u)  T ( v )

T (u  v)  T (u )  T (v)  0
T is a L .T .
Q u  v  ker (T )  u  v  0  T is one - to - one L.T.

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
One-to-one and not one-to-one linear transformation
(a ) The L.T. T : M mn  M nm given by T ( A)  AT
is one-to-one.
Because its kernel consists of only the m  n zero matrix
i.e., ker(T) = {0 mn }.
(b) The zero transformation T : R 3  R 3 is not one - to - one.
Because its kernel is all of R 3 .

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 Note: rank (T )  dim[range(T )]  dim[CS ( A)]


Onto linear transformation
Let T : V  W be a L.T., where W is finite dimensional,
then T is onto iff the rank of T is equal to the dimension of W .

Thm 4.7:
4.7 (One-to-one and onto linear transformation)
Let T : V  W be a L.T. with vector space V and W both of
dimension n, then T is one - to - one iff it is onto.

Pf: If T is one - to - one, then ker (T )  {0} and dim( ker (T ))  0

rank (T )  dim( range(T ))  n  dim( ker (T ))  n  dim(W )
Consequently, T is onto.
If T is onto, then dim(range of T )  dim(W )  n
dim( ker (T ))  n  dim(range of T )  n  n  0
Therefore, ker(T) = {0}. T is one - to - one. (from Thm 4.6)
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 Note: rank (T )  the dimension of the range of T  dim(CS ( A))


Ex:
The L.T. T : R n  R m is given by T (x)  Ax, find the nullity and rank
of T and determine whether T is one - to - one, onto, or neither.
1 2 0 1 2
( a ) A  0 1 1  (b) A  0 1 
   
 0 0 1   0 0 
1 2 0 
1 2 0  ( d ) A  0 1 1 
(c ) A  
0 1  1 
0 0 0

Sol:  
dim(domain nullity(T
T:Rn→Rm rank(T) 1-1 onto
of T) )
(a)T:R3→R3 3 3 0 Yes Yes
(b)T:R2→R3 2 2 0 Yes No
(c)T:R3→R2 3 2 1 No Yes
(d)T:R3→R3 3 2 1 No No
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 
Isomorphism

A linear transformation T : V  W that is one to one and onto is called an isomorphism.

Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces such that there exists an isomorphism from V
to W , then V and W are said to be isomorphic to each other.

Thm 4.8: (Isomorphic spaces and dimension)
Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic if
and only if they are of the same dimension.

Pf: Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n.

 There exists a L.T. T : V  W that is one to one and onto.
Q T is one - to - one  dim( Ker (T ))  0
 dim(range of T )  dim(domain of T )  dim( Ker (T ))
 n0  n
Q T is onto.
 dim(range of T )  dim(W )  n Thus dim(V )  dim(W )  n
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
Ex: (Isomorphic vector spaces)
The following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other.
(a) R 4  4 - space
(b) M 41  space of all 4 1 matrices
(c) M 22  space of all 2  2 matrices
(d ) P3 ( x)  space of all polynomials of degree 3 or less
(e)V  {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , 0), xi is a real number}(subspace of R 5 )

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REFLECTION ABOUT ANY LINE y=mx

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Ans for problem 4.8 is
 1/ 2 3 / 2
 
 3/2 1/ 2 


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MATRICES OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATION

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v

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
Thm 4.9:
4.9 (Standard matrix for a linear transformation)
r r r
Let T : R  R be a linear transformation and {e1 , e2 ,..., en }
n m

are the basis of R n such that

 a11   a12   a1 n 
a  a  a 
T (e1 )   21  , T (e2 )   22  , L , T (en )   2 n  ,
 M  M  M
     
a
 m1  a
 m2  a
 mn 
Then the m  n matrix whose i columns correspond to T (ei )
 a11 a12 L a1n 
a a22 L a2 n 
A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) L T (en )   21

 M M O M
 
 am 1 am 2 L amn 
is such that T (v)  Av for every v in R n .
A is called the standard matrix for T .
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
Ex : (Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation)
Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R 3  R 2 define by
T ( x, y , z )  ( x  2 y , 2 x  y )
Sol:
Vector Notation Matrix Notation
1 
  1 
T (e1 )  T (1, 0, 0)  (1, 2) T (e1 )  T ( 0 )   
   2
0 
0 
  2
T (e2 )  T (0, 1, 0)  (2, 1) T (e2 )  T ( 1 )   
  1
0 
0 
  0 
T (e3 )  T (0, 0, 1)  (0, 0) T (e3 )  T ( 0 )   
  0 
1
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 A  T (e1 ) T (e2 ) T (e3 )
1  2 0 

2 1 0

Check:
 x  x
  1  2 0     x  2 y 
A y  y 
  2 1 0   2 x  y 

z z
i.e., T ( x , y, z )  ( x  2 y, 2 x  y )

Note:
1  2 0  1x  2 y  0 z
A
2 1 0  2 x  1 y  0 z

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 
Composition of T1: Rn→Rm with T2: Rm→Rp :

T ( v )  T2 (T1 ( v )), v  R n

T  T2 o T1 , domain of T  domain of T1


Thm 4.10: (Composition of linear transformations)
Let T1 : R n  R m and T2 : R m  R p be L.T.
with standard matrices A1 and A2 , then
(1)The composition T : R n  R p , defined by T (v)  T2 (T1 (v)), is a L.T.

(2) The standard matrix A for T is given by the matrix product A  A2 A1

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Pf:
(1)( T is a L.T.)
Let u and v be vectors in R n and let c be any scalar then
T (u  v)  T2 (T1 (u  v ))  T2 (T1 (u)  T1 ( v))
 T2 (T1 (u))  T2 (T1 ( v ))  T (u)  T ( v)
T (cv )  T2 (T1 (cv ))  T2 (cT1 ( v ))  cT2 (T1 ( v ))  cT ( v)

(2)( A2 A1 is the standard matrix for T )

T ( v)  T2 (T1 ( v))  T2 ( A1 v )  A2 A1 v  ( A2 A1 ) v

But note:
T1 o T2  T2 o T1

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
Ex : (The standard matrix of a composition)
Let T1 and T2 be L.T. from R 3 into R 3 such that
T1 ( x, y, z )  (2 x  y, 0, x  z )
T2 ( x, y, z )  ( x  y, z, y )
Find the standard matrices for the compositions
T  T2  T1 and T '  T1  T2 ,
Sol:
2 1 0
A1  0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1  1 0
A2  0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0
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 1  1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A  A2 A1  0 0 1 0 0 0  1 0 1
    
0 1 0  1 0 1   0 0 0 
The standard matrix for T '  T1 o T2

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
Inverse linear transformation

If T1 : R n  R n and T2 : R n  R n are L.T. such that for every v in Rn

T2 (T1 ( v))  v and T1 (T2 ( v ))  v

Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible


Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T–1 .

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
Existence of an inverse transformation
Let T : R n  R n be a L.T. with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent.

(1) T is invertible.
(2) T is an isomorphism.
(3) A is invertible.

Note:
If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard
matrix for T–1 is A–1 .

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 
Ex : (Finding the inverse of a linear transformation)
The L.T. T : R 3  R 3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (2 x1  3 x2  x3 , 3 x1  3 x2  x3 , 2 x1  4 x2  x3 )
Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse.

Sol: The standard matrix for T

2 3 1  2 x1  3 x 2  x 3
A  3 3 1  3 x1  3 x 2  x 3
2 4 1  2 x1  4 x 2  x 3
 2 3 1 1 0 0  1 0 0 1 1 0
  G .J .E  
 A I 3    3 3 1 0 1 0    0 1 0 1 0 1    I A1 
 2 4 1 0 0 1   0 0 1 6 2 3 

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Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1
 1 1 0
A1   1 0 1 
 6 2 3 

 1 1 0   x1    x1  x2 
   
T 1 (v)  A1 v   1 0 1   x2     x1  x3 
 6 2 3   x3   6 x1  2 x2  3 x3 

In other words,
T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 )  (  x1  x2 ,  x1  x3 , 6 x1  2 x2  3 x3 )

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
the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B'
T :V  W (a L.T.)
B  {v1 , v2 , L , vn } (a basis for V )
B '  { w1 , w2 , L , wm } (a basis for W )

Thus, the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' is

A  T (v1 )B ' , T (v 2 )B ' , L , T (v n )B '   M mn

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
Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases
Let V and W be finite - dimensional vector spaces with basis
B and B ', respectively, where B  {v1 , v 2 , L , v n }
If T : V  W is a L.T. such that

 a11   a12   a1 n 
a  a  a 
T (v1 )B '    , T (v2 )B '  
22 
T (v n )B '  
21 2n 
,L ,
 M  M  M
     
 am 1   am 2   amn 

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the m  n matrix whose i columns correspond to T (vi )B ' is

 a11 a12 L a1n 

a a22 L a2 n 
A  T (v1 ) T (v2 ) L T (vn )   21

 M M O M
 
 am 1 am 2 L amn 

such that  T (v) B '  A[v]B for every v in V .

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
Ex : (Finding a transformation matrix relative to nonstandard bases)
Let T： R 2  R 2 be a L.T. defined by
T ( x1 , x2 )  ( x1  x2 , 2 x1  x2 )
Find the matrix of T relative to the basis
B  {(1, 2), (1, 1)} and B'  {(1, 0), (0, 1)}
Now use the matrix to find T (v) where v  (2,1)
Sol: T (1, 2)  (3, 0)  3(1, 0)  0(0, 1)
T (1, 1)  (0,  3)  0(1, 0)  3(0, 1)
 3 0
 T (1, 2) B '   0  ,  T ( 1, 1) B '   3
   
the transformation matrix T relative to B and B '
3 0 
A   T (1, 2) B '  T ( 1, 1) B '    
 0  3 
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 Now use the matrix A to find T (v), where v  (2, 1)

v  (2, 1)  1(1, 2)  1(1, 1) B  { ( 1 , 2 ), (  1 , 1 ) }

1
  v B  
 1
3 0   1  3
 T ( v ) B '  A v  B      
0  3  1 3
 T ( v )  3(1, 0)  3(0, 1)  (3, 3) B '  { ( 1 , 0 ), ( 0 , 1 )}

Check: T (2, 1)  (2  1, 2(2)  1)  (3, 3)

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
Notes:
(1) In the special case where V  W and B  B ',
the matrix A is called the matrix of T relative to the basis B
(2) T : V  V : the identity transformation
r r r
B  {v1 , v2 , L , vn } : a basis for V
 the matrix of T relative to the basis B
1 0 L 0
0 1 L 0 
r r r
A  T (v1 )B , T (v 2 )B , L , T (v n )B     In
M MO M
 
0 0 L 1

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
v

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and hence verify the above definition for x=(1,2,3)

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
v

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Practice problems

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