FLOW OF WATER

THROUGH SOIL
CHAPTER 3
Learning outcome

At the end of this lecture, student should be able

to:

 Define the concept of pressure head and hydraulic

gradient
 Understand the definition of permeability and 1-D
flow of water through soil using Darcy Law
 Determine the coefficient of permeability using
constant head and falling head test
Content
 Definition of pressure head and hydraulic gradient
 Permeability and 1-D flow of water through soil –
Darcy Law
 Determination of the coefficient of permeability –
constant head, falling head
 Field permeability test – confined aquifer, unconfined
aquifer
 Seepage and 2D-flow in isotropic and homogeneous
soil. Seepage calculation using flow net under
concrete Dam/sheet piles and through earth dam
INTRODUCTION

 The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is

important in soil mechanics
 It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage
under various hydraulic conditions
 E.g. for investigating problems involving the pumping of water for
underground construction, and for making stability analyses of
earth dams and earth retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces
INTRODUCTION
 Water is free to flow within a soil mass
 In porous media, water will flow from the zones of higher to
lower pore pressure
 When considering problems of water flow, it is usual to express
a pressure as a ‘pressure head’ or ‘head’, measured in meter of
water
 PORE PRESSURE
Pore Pressure (u)
•The pressure within the water is called porewater pressure (u w).
•The pressure within the air is called pore air pressure (u a).
• In saturated soils, the air pressure is negligible and may be
ignored and thus the term used is simply the pore pressure (u).
•The magnitude of pore pressure depends on:
i. the depth below the water table
ii. the conditions of seepage

Hydraulic Pressure
•Under hydrostatic conditions the pore pressure (u) at a given point is given
by the hydrostatic pressure:

u = γw .h

where h = the depth below the water table or

overlying water surface
 PORE PRESSURE

Negative Pore Pressure

Below the water table pore pressures are positive.
In dry soil the pore pressure is zero
Above the water table when the soil is saturated pore
pressure will be negative.
Pore pressure, u = -γWh
The height above the water table to which the soil is
saturated is called the capillary rise, and this depends on
the size and type of soil particles (and thus the size of
pores):
a) coarse soils capillary rise is very small
b) in silts it may be up to 2 m
c) in clays it can be over 20 m
PORE PRESSURE

 Capillary Water

Capillary water is held above the water table by surface tension

which is the attractive force exerted at the interface or surface
between materials in different physical state, i.e. liquid/gas,
solid/ liquids
MOVEMENT OF WATER

 Water flow through soil’s voids.

 The movement of water through a soil mass is
generally termed seepage.
 The capacity of a soil to allow water to flow
through it is called its permeability.
 Groundwater flow will occur when there is a
difference in total head between two points in a
soil mass.
 PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC
GRADIENT
 Bernoulli’s equation states 3 heads components, total head
(h) causing a water flow

 Where h = total head

u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water
Z = vertical distance of a given point above or below datum
 PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC
GRADIENT
 If Bernoulli’s eq is applied to the flow of water
through a porous medium, the velocity head
can be neglected because the seepage velocity
is very small
 And the total head at any point can be as
follows
 PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

Figure 1: Pressure, elevation and total heads for flow of water through soil
 PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
 The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be
given by
Δh = hA – hB

 The head loss, Δh can be expressed in a nondimensional

form as
i = Δh
L

Where i = hydraulic gradient

Hydraulic gradient is the water pressure which causes the flow of water
in soil due the different in water table or hydraulic potential.
L = distance between points A and B (the length of flow over
which the loss of head occurred)
 PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT

Figure 2: Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i

 PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
 In general, the variation of the velocity v with the
hydraulic gradient i is divided into 3 zones
i/ laminar flow zone (Zone I)
ii/ transition zone (Zone II)
iii/ turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
 In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces
can be considered laminar
Vi

 In fractured rock, stones, gravels and very coarse sands,

turbulent flow conditions may exist
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

 Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) – the capacity of a soil to

allow water to pass through it
 Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

 The value k is used as a measure of the resistance to flow

offered by soil, and affected by several factor:

i/ the porosity of the soil

ii/ the particle size distribution
iii/ the shape and orientation of soil particles
iv/ the degree of saturation/presence of air
v/ the type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers
associated with clay minerals (if present)
vi/ the viscosity of the soil water, which varies with
temperature
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY

 Hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different

soils
 The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower
and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation
Soil type k (cm/sec) k (ft/min)
Clean gravel 100-1.0 200-2.0
Coarse sand 1.0-0.01 2.0-0.02
Fine sand 0.01-0.001 0.02-0.002
Silty clay 0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002
Clay <0.000001 <0.000002
Darcy’s Law
 In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge
velocity of water through saturated soils

v = ki
 Where v = discharge velocity, which the quantity of water
flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area
of soil at right angles to the direction flow
k = hydraulic conductivity

Also, the flow rate, q = A v

 where A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of flow
Thus: flow rate, q = A k i
Darcy’s Law

 This equation is on observation about the flow of water through

clean sands
 Valid for laminar flow conditions and applicable for a wide range
of soils
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

 The value of the coefficient of permeability will be affected by changes in

temperature
 It may be shown theoretically that for a laminar flow condition in a
saturated soil mass:
k  γw
η
 Where γw = unit weight of water
η = viscosity of water
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

 A correction for the effect of temperature , may

be obtained as follows:
kt = kt k20

 Where kt = value k corresponding to a

temperature of t (corrected k)
k20 = value of k corresponding to a
temperature of 20°C
kt = temperature correction coefficient
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS

 Coefficient of permeability (k) can be measured

using field tests or tests conducted in the
laboratory
 The aim to produce similar results as using field
tests
 In laboratory, errors may occur due to:
i/ the presence of air bubbles in the water
ii/ Variations in sample density and porosity
iii/ variations in temperature and viscosity of
water
 2 test – constant head test and falling head test
The constant head test
The constant head test

 To determine the coefficients of permeability (k) of coarse-

grained soils such as gravels and sands having value of k above
10-4m/s
The constant head test
 In this type of laboratory
setup, the water supply at
the inlet is adjusted in such a
way that the difference of
head between the inlet and
the outlet remains constant
during the test period
 After a constant flow rate is
established, water is
collected in a graduated
flask for a known duration
The constant head test

Q = Avt = A(ki)t

Where Q = volume of water collected

A = area of cross section of the soil
specimen
t =duration of water collection
q = Av = Aki

Where q = quantity flowing in unit time

The constant head test
i=h
L
 And because

 The equation can be substituted as below

k = QL
Aht
Example 1

During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following data

were collected. Determine the average value k

Diameter of sample = 100mm

Temperature of water = 17°
Distance between manometer tapping points =150mm

Quantity collected in 2 min. (ml) 541 503 509 474

Difference in manometer levels 76 72 68 65

(mm)
Solution
Solution
Example 2

With the aid of sketch, derive the formula for the permeability
of a soil using a constant head apparatus
Solution
 By applying Darcy’s equation

q = kAi
k = q/Ai but q = Q/t, i = h/L
k = 1/A x Q/t x L/H
k = QL/Ath (mm/s)

Where,
q = flow rate (mm3/s)
Q = quantity collected in time (s) = Q (ml) x 103 (mm3)
A = cross sectional area (mm2)
H = different in manometer levels (mm)
L = distance between manometer tapping points (mm)
The falling head test
The falling head test

 To determine the coefficient of permeability of fine soils

 For these soils, the rate of flow of water through them is too
small to enable accurate measurements using the constant head
permeameter
 The test is conducted by filling the standpipe with de-aired water
and allowing seepage to take place through the sample
 The height of water in the standpipe is recorded at several time
intervals
 Test repeated using standpipes of different diameter
The falling head test

k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At h2

 Where a = cross sectional area of the standpipe

A = cross sectional area of the sample
t = time interval
h1 = initial standpipe reading
h2 = final standpipe reading
L = length of sample
Procedure

 Specimen – 100mm diameter undisturbed

sample
 Specimens can also be prepared by compaction
in a standard mould
 A wire mesh and gravel filter is provided at the
top and bottom of the sample
 The base of the cylinder is stood in a water
reservoir fitted with a constant-level overflow
and the top connected to a glass standpipe of
known diameter
Example 3

During a test using falling-head permeameter, the following

data were recorded. Determine the average value of k.

Diameter of sample = 100mm

Length of sample = 150mm
 Recorded data
Standpipe Level in standpipe (mm) Time interval
diameter (mm) Initial, h1 Final, h2 (s)
5.00 1200 800 82
800 400 149
9.00 1200 900 177
900 700 169
700 400 368
12.50 1200 800 485
800 400 908
Solution

Cross sectional area of sample, A = 1002 x π

4

Cross sectional area of standpipe a = d2 x π

4
k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At h2
 Solution
Recorded data Computed

Standpip Level in standpipe Time interval log10 h1 k (mm/s)

e (mm) (s) h2 x 10-3
diameter
Initial, h1 Final, h2
(mm)
5.00 1200 800 82 0.1761 1.854

800 400 149 0.3010 1.744

9.00 1200 900 177 0.1249 1.975

900 700 169 0.1091 1.807

700 400 368 0.2430 1.847

12.50 1200 800 485 0.1761 1.959

800 400 908 0.3010 1.789

Average k = 1.85 x 10-3 mm/s

= 1.85 x 10-6 m/s
 Exercise
 Question 1  Question 2

The following data were recorded In a falling-head permeability test

during a constant-head permeability the following data were recorded:
test:

Internal diameter of permeameter = 75.2 mm

Internal diameter = 75 mm Length of sample = 122.0 mm
Head lost over a sample length of 180 mm = Internal diameter of standpipe = 6.25 mm
247 mm
Initial level in standpipe = 750.0 mm
Quantity of water collected in 60 s = 626 ml
Level in standpipe after 15 min = 247.0 mm

Calculate the coefficient of permeability for

the soil Calculate the permeability of the soil
Learning outcome

At the end of this lecture, student should be able to:

 Determine the coefficient of permeability for field permeability

test – confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer
FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST

 Comprehensive multiple-well pumping tests can be expensive to

be carry out, but offer a high level of reliability
 The use of site investigation boreholes can be economically
advantageous
FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST

Steady state pumping tests

 Pumping tests involve the measurement of a
pumped quantity from a well, together with
observations in other wells of the resulting
drawdown of the ground level
 Steady state is achieved when a constant pumping
rate, the levels in observation wells are then noted
 The analysis of the results depends on whether the
aquifer is confined or unconfined
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
 The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined
aquifer can be determined by conducting a pumping
test from a well with a perforated casing that
penetrates the full depth of the aquifer
 The pumping rate must not be high enough to reduce
the level in the pumping well below the top of the
aquifer
 Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady
state is reached
 The arrangement of a pumping well and two
observation wells is shown here
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
Pumping test in a confined aquifer

 Water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness
H
 The hydraulic conductivity is given as follows

k = q log10 (r2/r1)
2.727H (h2-h1)
Pumping test in a confined aquifer

 Approximation may be derived from a consideration of the radius

of influence (r0) of the pumping
 It may be assumed that no drawdown of the piezometric head
takes place outside the radius of influence
r = ro and h =ho
 Example 4

A permeability pumping test was carried out from a well sunk into a
confined stratum of dense sand. The arrangement of pumping well and
observation wells are shown below. When a steady state was achieved
at a pumping rate of 37.4m3/hr, the following drawdown were
observed:
 pumping well: d = 4.46m
observation well 1: d = 0.42m
observation well 2: d = 1.15m

a) Calculate a value for the coefficient of permeability of the sand

using the observation well data

b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping rate

Solution
a) Observation well data: r2 = 50m r1 = 15m

ho = 11.7 + 7.4 – 2.5 = 16.6m

h2 = 16.6 – 0.42 = 16.18m
h1 = 16.6 – 1.15 = 15.45m

q = 37.4 / 3600 = 10.39 x 10-3 m3/s H = 11.7m

k = q log10 (r2/r1)
2.727 H (h2-h1)

= (10.39 x 10-3 ) log 10 (50/15)

2.727 x 11.7 x (16.18 – 15.45)

= 2.33 x 10-4 m/s

(b) No drawdown
Then, putting r2 =50m and h2 = 16.18m

k = q log10 (ro/r2)
2.727 H (ho-h2)

Log10 (ro/50) = 2.33 x 10-4 x 2.727 x 11.7

16.6 – 16.18 10.39 x 10-3

ro = 100m
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer

 An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface

layer underlain by an impervious base
 During the test, water is pumped out at a constant
rate from a test well that has a perforated casing
 Several observations wells at various radial
distance are made around the test well
 Continuous observation of water level in the test
well are made after the start of pumping until a
steady state is reached
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer

 The hydraulic conductivity is given as follows

k = 2.303q log10 (r2/r2)

π(h22-h12)
Example 5

A permeability test was carried out from well sunk

through a surface layer of medium dense sand.
Initially, the water table was located at a depth of
2.5m. When a steady state was achieved at a
pumping rate of 23.4m3/hr, the following draw-
downs were observed

Pumping well: d = 3.64m

Observation well 1: d = 0.48m
Observation well 2: d = 0.96m
(a) Calculate value for the coefficient of permeability of the sand
using the observation well data
(b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping rate
Solution
(a) Observation data :
r2 = 62m r1 = 18m
ho = 12 – 2.5 = 9.5m
h2 = 9.5 – 0.48 = 9.02m
h1 = 9.5 – 0.96 = 8.54m
q = 23.4/3600 = 6.5 x 10-3 m3/s
k = 2.303q log10 (r2/r1)
π(h22-h12)

= 3.04 x 10-4 m/s

(b) Putting r2 =62m and h2 = 9.02m

k = 2.303q log10 (ro/r2)

π(ho2-h22)

ro = 229 m
 Exercise
Question 1
For a field pumping test a well was sunk through a horizontal layer of a sand which
proved to be 14.4 m thick and to be underlain by a stratum of clay. Two observation
wells were sunk, respectively 18 m and 64 m from the pumping well. The water table
was initially 2.2 m below the ground level. At a steady state pumping-rate of 328
litres/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells were found to be 1.92 and 1.16 m
respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the sand.
 
Question 2
A horizontal layer of sand of 6.0 m thickness is overlain by a layer of clay with a
horizontal surface thickness of 4.8 m. An impermeable layer underlies the sand. In
order to carry out a pumping test, a well was sunk to the bottom of the sand and two
observation wells were sunk through clay just into the sand at distances 12 m and 40 m
from the pumping well. At a steady pump rate of 600 litres/min., the water levels in
the observation wells were reduced by 2.28 m and 1.79 m respectively. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of the sand if the initial piezometric surface level lies 1.0 m
below the ground surface.
Seepage and 2-D Flow in Isotropic
and Homogeneous Soil
 In preceding lesson, we considered some simple cases for which
direct application of Darcy’s law was required to calculate the flow
of water through soil
 In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one
direction only, nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular
to the flow
 The seepage taking place around sheet-piling, dams, under other
water-retaining structures and through embankments and earth
dams is two dimensional
 Vertical and horizontal velocity components vary from point to
point within the cross-section of the soil mass
 Graphical representation known as a flow net will be introduced
 The flow of water through soils is described by
Laplace’s equation.

 Where H =total head

kx and kz = hydraulic conductivities in X and Y directions
 Laplace’s eq expresses the condition that the changes
of hydraulic gradient in one direction are balanced by
changes in the other directions
 Laplace’s equation is also called the potential flow
equation because the velocity head is neglected
 If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic
conductivity – that is kx = kz, the preceding
continuity equation for 2-D flow simplifies to

 There are 2 techniques for Laplace’s equation. One

of it is an approximate method called flownet
sketching
 Flow Net
A flownet is a graphical representation of a flow field that satisfies
Laplace’s equation and comprises a family of flow lines and
equipotential lines

 Flow line - a line along which a

water particle will travel from
upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium

 Equipotential line - a line along

which the potential head at all
points is equal

A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called

a flow net
Completed flow net
Construction of Flow Net
 Draw the structure and soil mass to suitable scale
 Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries
 Sketch a series of flow lines (4 or 5) and then sketch an
appropriate number of equipotential lines such that the
area between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential
lines is approximately a curvilinear square
 Theoritically, any no. of flow lines may be drawn and the
greater the no., the more accurate should be the
calculations that follow.
 However, from a practical point of view the task is
simplified by drawing only few flow lines; it is not often
that more than 5 or 6 will be necessary
Seepage Calculation
 In any flow net, the strip between any two
adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel.
 Let h1, h2, h3, h4,…hn be the piezometric levels
corresponding to the equipotential lines
 The rate of seepage through the flow channel
per unit length (perpendicular to the vertical
section through the permeable layer) can be
calculated as follows
 Δq1=Δq2=Δq3=…..=Δqn
Seepage Calculation

 From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus

 If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf, the

total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length can be
given by
Seepage Calculation

 Or

 Where H =head difference between the upstream and

downstream sides
 Nd = number of potential drop
 Nf = number of flow channels in flow net
 n = b1/l1=b2/l2=b3/l3=……=n (i.e. the elements are not square)
EXAMPLE
ANSWER
SUMMARY
 In this chapter, we’ve discussed Darcy’s Law, definition of hydraulic
conductivity, laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity
 The accuracy of the values of k determined in the laboratory depends on
several factor
- Temperature of the fluid
- Viscosity of the fluid
- Trapped air bubbles present in the soil specimen
- Degree of saturation of the soil specimen
- Migration of fines during testing
- Duplication of field conditions in the laboratory
 The actual value of the hydraulic conductivity in the field may also be
somewhat different than that obtained in the laboratory because of the
nonhomogeneity of the soil
 Hence, proper care should be taken in assessing the order of the magnitude
of k for all design consideration.
Do make a lot of practice on the tutorial questions.
Practice makes better.
End of Week 10 & End of Topic 3
Week 11 : Soil Compaction and Consolidation.
Wasslam & Thank You.