FLOW OF WATER
THROUGH SOIL
CHAPTER 3
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should be able
to:
Define the concept of pressure head and hydraulic
gradient
Understand the definition of permeability and 1-D
flow of water through soil using Darcy Law
Determine the coefficient of permeability using
constant head and falling head test
Content
Definition of pressure head and hydraulic gradient
Permeability and 1-D flow of water through soil –
Darcy Law
Determination of the coefficient of permeability –
constant head, falling head
Field permeability test – confined aquifer, unconfined
aquifer
Seepage and 2D-flow in isotropic and homogeneous
soil. Seepage calculation using flow net under
concrete Dam/sheet piles and through earth dam
INTRODUCTION
The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is
important in soil mechanics
It is necessary for estimating the quantity of underground seepage
under various hydraulic conditions
E.g. for investigating problems involving the pumping of water for
underground construction, and for making stability analyses of
earth dams and earth retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces
INTRODUCTION
Water is free to flow within a soil mass
In porous media, water will flow from the zones of higher to
lower pore pressure
When considering problems of water flow, it is usual to express
a pressure as a ‘pressure head’ or ‘head’, measured in meter of
water
PORE PRESSURE
Pore Pressure (u)
•The pressure within the water is called porewater pressure (u w).
•The pressure within the air is called pore air pressure (u a).
• In saturated soils, the air pressure is negligible and may be
ignored and thus the term used is simply the pore pressure (u).
•The magnitude of pore pressure depends on:
i. the depth below the water table
ii. the conditions of seepage
Hydraulic Pressure
•Under hydrostatic conditions the pore pressure (u) at a given point is given
by the hydrostatic pressure:
u = γw .h
where h = the depth below the water table or
overlying water surface
PORE PRESSURE
Negative Pore Pressure
Below the water table pore pressures are positive.
In dry soil the pore pressure is zero
Above the water table when the soil is saturated pore
pressure will be negative.
Pore pressure, u = -γWh
The height above the water table to which the soil is
saturated is called the capillary rise, and this depends on
the size and type of soil particles (and thus the size of
pores):
a) coarse soils capillary rise is very small
b) in silts it may be up to 2 m
c) in clays it can be over 20 m
PORE PRESSURE
Capillary Water
Capillary water is held above the water table by surface tension
which is the attractive force exerted at the interface or surface
between materials in different physical state, i.e. liquid/gas,
solid/ liquids
MOVEMENT OF WATER
Water flow through soil’s voids.
The movement of water through a soil mass is
generally termed seepage.
The capacity of a soil to allow water to flow
through it is called its permeability.
Groundwater flow will occur when there is a
difference in total head between two points in a
soil mass.
PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC
GRADIENT
Bernoulli’s equation states 3 heads components, total head
(h) causing a water flow
Where h = total head
u = pressure
v = velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity
γw = unit weight of water
Z = vertical distance of a given point above or below datum
PRESSURE HEAD AND HYDRAULIC
GRADIENT
If Bernoulli’s eq is applied to the flow of water
through a porous medium, the velocity head
can be neglected because the seepage velocity
is very small
And the total head at any point can be as
follows
PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
Figure 1: Pressure, elevation and total heads for flow of water through soil
PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be
given by
Δh = hA – hB
The head loss, Δh can be expressed in a nondimensional
form as
i = Δh
L
Where i = hydraulic gradient
Hydraulic gradient is the water pressure which causes the flow of water
in soil due the different in water table or hydraulic potential.
L = distance between points A and B (the length of flow over
which the loss of head occurred)
PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
Figure 2: Nature of variation of v with hydraulic gradient, i
PRESSURE HEAD AND
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT
In general, the variation of the velocity v with the
hydraulic gradient i is divided into 3 zones
i/ laminar flow zone (Zone I)
ii/ transition zone (Zone II)
iii/ turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces
can be considered laminar
Vi
In fractured rock, stones, gravels and very coarse sands,
turbulent flow conditions may exist
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) – the capacity of a soil to
allow water to pass through it
Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
The value k is used as a measure of the resistance to flow
offered by soil, and affected by several factor:
i/ the porosity of the soil
ii/ the particle size distribution
iii/ the shape and orientation of soil particles
iv/ the degree of saturation/presence of air
v/ the type of cation and thickness of adsorbed layers
associated with clay minerals (if present)
vi/ the viscosity of the soil water, which varies with
temperature
COEFFICIENT OF PERMEABILITY
Hydraulic conductivity (k) varies widely for different
soils
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower
and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation
Soil type k (cm/sec) k (ft/min)
Clean gravel 100-1.0 200-2.0
Coarse sand 1.0-0.01 2.0-0.02
Fine sand 0.01-0.001 0.02-0.002
Silty clay 0.001-0.00001 0.002-0.00002
Clay <0.000001 <0.000002
Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge
velocity of water through saturated soils
v = ki
Where v = discharge velocity, which the quantity of water
flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area
of soil at right angles to the direction flow
k = hydraulic conductivity
Also, the flow rate, q = A v
where A = cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
direction of flow
Thus: flow rate, q = A k i
Darcy’s Law
This equation is on observation about the flow of water through
clean sands
Valid for laminar flow conditions and applicable for a wide range
of soils
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
The value of the coefficient of permeability will be affected by changes in
temperature
It may be shown theoretically that for a laminar flow condition in a
saturated soil mass:
k γw
η
Where γw = unit weight of water
η = viscosity of water
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
A correction for the effect of temperature , may
be obtained as follows:
kt = kt k20
Where kt = value k corresponding to a
temperature of t (corrected k)
k20 = value of k corresponding to a
temperature of 20°C
kt = temperature correction coefficient
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
LABORATORY MEASUREMENTS
Coefficient of permeability (k) can be measured
using field tests or tests conducted in the
laboratory
The aim to produce similar results as using field
tests
In laboratory, errors may occur due to:
i/ the presence of air bubbles in the water
ii/ Variations in sample density and porosity
iii/ variations in temperature and viscosity of
water
2 test – constant head test and falling head test
The constant head test
The constant head test
To determine the coefficients of permeability (k) of coarse-
grained soils such as gravels and sands having value of k above
10-4m/s
The constant head test
In this type of laboratory
setup, the water supply at
the inlet is adjusted in such a
way that the difference of
head between the inlet and
the outlet remains constant
during the test period
After a constant flow rate is
established, water is
collected in a graduated
flask for a known duration
The constant head test
Q = Avt = A(ki)t
Where Q = volume of water collected
A = area of cross section of the soil
specimen
t =duration of water collection
q = Av = Aki
Where q = quantity flowing in unit time
The constant head test
i=h
L
And because
The equation can be substituted as below
k = QL
Aht
Example 1
During a test using a constant-head permeameter, the following data
were collected. Determine the average value k
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Temperature of water = 17°
Distance between manometer tapping points =150mm
Quantity collected in 2 min. (ml) 541 503 509 474
Difference in manometer levels 76 72 68 65
(mm)
Solution
Solution
Example 2
With the aid of sketch, derive the formula for the permeability
of a soil using a constant head apparatus
Solution
By applying Darcy’s equation
q = kAi
k = q/Ai but q = Q/t, i = h/L
k = 1/A x Q/t x L/H
k = QL/Ath (mm/s)
Where,
q = flow rate (mm3/s)
Q = quantity collected in time (s) = Q (ml) x 103 (mm3)
A = cross sectional area (mm2)
H = different in manometer levels (mm)
L = distance between manometer tapping points (mm)
The falling head test
The falling head test
To determine the coefficient of permeability of fine soils
For these soils, the rate of flow of water through them is too
small to enable accurate measurements using the constant head
permeameter
The test is conducted by filling the standpipe with de-aired water
and allowing seepage to take place through the sample
The height of water in the standpipe is recorded at several time
intervals
Test repeated using standpipes of different diameter
The falling head test
k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At h2
Where a = cross sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross sectional area of the sample
t = time interval
h1 = initial standpipe reading
h2 = final standpipe reading
L = length of sample
Procedure
Specimen – 100mm diameter undisturbed
sample
Specimens can also be prepared by compaction
in a standard mould
A wire mesh and gravel filter is provided at the
top and bottom of the sample
The base of the cylinder is stood in a water
reservoir fitted with a constant-level overflow
and the top connected to a glass standpipe of
known diameter
Example 3
During a test using falling-head permeameter, the following
data were recorded. Determine the average value of k.
Diameter of sample = 100mm
Length of sample = 150mm
Recorded data
Standpipe Level in standpipe (mm) Time interval
diameter (mm) Initial, h1 Final, h2 (s)
5.00 1200 800 82
800 400 149
9.00 1200 900 177
900 700 169
700 400 368
12.50 1200 800 485
800 400 908
Solution
Cross sectional area of sample, A = 1002 x π
4
Cross sectional area of standpipe a = d2 x π
4
k = 2.303 aL log10 h1
At h2
Solution
Recorded data Computed
Standpip Level in standpipe Time interval log10 h1 k (mm/s)
e (mm) (s) h2 x 10-3
diameter
Initial, h1 Final, h2
(mm)
5.00 1200 800 82 0.1761 1.854
800 400 149 0.3010 1.744
9.00 1200 900 177 0.1249 1.975
900 700 169 0.1091 1.807
700 400 368 0.2430 1.847
12.50 1200 800 485 0.1761 1.959
800 400 908 0.3010 1.789
Average k = 1.85 x 10-3 mm/s
= 1.85 x 10-6 m/s
Exercise
Question 1 Question 2
The following data were recorded In a falling-head permeability test
during a constant-head permeability the following data were recorded:
test:
Internal diameter of permeameter = 75.2 mm
Internal diameter = 75 mm Length of sample = 122.0 mm
Head lost over a sample length of 180 mm = Internal diameter of standpipe = 6.25 mm
247 mm
Initial level in standpipe = 750.0 mm
Quantity of water collected in 60 s = 626 ml
Level in standpipe after 15 min = 247.0 mm
Calculate the coefficient of permeability for
the soil Calculate the permeability of the soil
Learning outcome
At the end of this lecture, student should be able to:
Determine the coefficient of permeability for field permeability
test – confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer
FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
Comprehensive multiple-well pumping tests can be expensive to
be carry out, but offer a high level of reliability
The use of site investigation boreholes can be economically
advantageous
FIELD PERMEABILITY TEST
Steady state pumping tests
Pumping tests involve the measurement of a
pumped quantity from a well, together with
observations in other wells of the resulting
drawdown of the ground level
Steady state is achieved when a constant pumping
rate, the levels in observation wells are then noted
The analysis of the results depends on whether the
aquifer is confined or unconfined
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined
aquifer can be determined by conducting a pumping
test from a well with a perforated casing that
penetrates the full depth of the aquifer
The pumping rate must not be high enough to reduce
the level in the pumping well below the top of the
aquifer
Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady
state is reached
The arrangement of a pumping well and two
observation wells is shown here
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
Water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness
H
The hydraulic conductivity is given as follows
k = q log10 (r2/r1)
2.727H (h2-h1)
Pumping test in a confined aquifer
Approximation may be derived from a consideration of the radius
of influence (r0) of the pumping
It may be assumed that no drawdown of the piezometric head
takes place outside the radius of influence
r = ro and h =ho
Example 4
A permeability pumping test was carried out from a well sunk into a
confined stratum of dense sand. The arrangement of pumping well and
observation wells are shown below. When a steady state was achieved
at a pumping rate of 37.4m3/hr, the following drawdown were
observed:
pumping well: d = 4.46m
observation well 1: d = 0.42m
observation well 2: d = 1.15m
a) Calculate a value for the coefficient of permeability of the sand
using the observation well data
b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping rate
Solution
a) Observation well data: r2 = 50m r1 = 15m
ho = 11.7 + 7.4 – 2.5 = 16.6m
h2 = 16.6 – 0.42 = 16.18m
h1 = 16.6 – 1.15 = 15.45m
q = 37.4 / 3600 = 10.39 x 10-3 m3/s H = 11.7m
k = q log10 (r2/r1)
2.727 H (h2-h1)
= (10.39 x 10-3 ) log 10 (50/15)
2.727 x 11.7 x (16.18 – 15.45)
= 2.33 x 10-4 m/s
(b) No drawdown
Then, putting r2 =50m and h2 = 16.18m
k = q log10 (ro/r2)
2.727 H (ho-h2)
Log10 (ro/50) = 2.33 x 10-4 x 2.727 x 11.7
16.6 – 16.18 10.39 x 10-3
ro = 100m
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer
An unconfined aquifer is a free-draining surface
layer underlain by an impervious base
During the test, water is pumped out at a constant
rate from a test well that has a perforated casing
Several observations wells at various radial
distance are made around the test well
Continuous observation of water level in the test
well are made after the start of pumping until a
steady state is reached
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer
Pumping test in an unconfined aquifer
The hydraulic conductivity is given as follows
k = 2.303q log10 (r2/r2)
π(h22-h12)
Example 5
A permeability test was carried out from well sunk
through a surface layer of medium dense sand.
Initially, the water table was located at a depth of
2.5m. When a steady state was achieved at a
pumping rate of 23.4m3/hr, the following draw-
downs were observed
Pumping well: d = 3.64m
Observation well 1: d = 0.48m
Observation well 2: d = 0.96m
(a) Calculate value for the coefficient of permeability of the sand
using the observation well data
(b) Estimate the radius of influence at this pumping rate
Solution
(a) Observation data :
r2 = 62m r1 = 18m
ho = 12 – 2.5 = 9.5m
h2 = 9.5 – 0.48 = 9.02m
h1 = 9.5 – 0.96 = 8.54m
q = 23.4/3600 = 6.5 x 10-3 m3/s
k = 2.303q log10 (r2/r1)
π(h22-h12)
= 3.04 x 10-4 m/s
(b) Putting r2 =62m and h2 = 9.02m
k = 2.303q log10 (ro/r2)
π(ho2-h22)
ro = 229 m
Exercise
Question 1
For a field pumping test a well was sunk through a horizontal layer of a sand which
proved to be 14.4 m thick and to be underlain by a stratum of clay. Two observation
wells were sunk, respectively 18 m and 64 m from the pumping well. The water table
was initially 2.2 m below the ground level. At a steady state pumping-rate of 328
litres/min, the drawdowns in the observation wells were found to be 1.92 and 1.16 m
respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the sand.
Question 2
A horizontal layer of sand of 6.0 m thickness is overlain by a layer of clay with a
horizontal surface thickness of 4.8 m. An impermeable layer underlies the sand. In
order to carry out a pumping test, a well was sunk to the bottom of the sand and two
observation wells were sunk through clay just into the sand at distances 12 m and 40 m
from the pumping well. At a steady pump rate of 600 litres/min., the water levels in
the observation wells were reduced by 2.28 m and 1.79 m respectively. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability of the sand if the initial piezometric surface level lies 1.0 m
below the ground surface.
Seepage and 2-D Flow in Isotropic
and Homogeneous Soil
In preceding lesson, we considered some simple cases for which
direct application of Darcy’s law was required to calculate the flow
of water through soil
In many instances, the flow of water through soil is not in one
direction only, nor is it uniform over the entire area perpendicular
to the flow
The seepage taking place around sheet-piling, dams, under other
water-retaining structures and through embankments and earth
dams is two dimensional
Vertical and horizontal velocity components vary from point to
point within the cross-section of the soil mass
Graphical representation known as a flow net will be introduced
The flow of water through soils is described by
Laplace’s equation.
Where H =total head
kx and kz = hydraulic conductivities in X and Y directions
Laplace’s eq expresses the condition that the changes
of hydraulic gradient in one direction are balanced by
changes in the other directions
Laplace’s equation is also called the potential flow
equation because the velocity head is neglected
If the soil is isotropic with respect to the hydraulic
conductivity – that is kx = kz, the preceding
continuity equation for 2-D flow simplifies to
There are 2 techniques for Laplace’s equation. One
of it is an approximate method called flownet
sketching
Flow Net
A flownet is a graphical representation of a flow field that satisfies
Laplace’s equation and comprises a family of flow lines and
equipotential lines
Flow line - a line along which a
water particle will travel from
upstream to the downstream side
in the permeable soil medium
Equipotential line - a line along
which the potential head at all
points is equal
A combination of a number of flow lines and equipotential lines is called
a flow net
Completed flow net
Construction of Flow Net
Draw the structure and soil mass to suitable scale
Identify impermeable and permeable boundaries
Sketch a series of flow lines (4 or 5) and then sketch an
appropriate number of equipotential lines such that the
area between a pair of flow lines and a pair of equipotential
lines is approximately a curvilinear square
Theoritically, any no. of flow lines may be drawn and the
greater the no., the more accurate should be the
calculations that follow.
However, from a practical point of view the task is
simplified by drawing only few flow lines; it is not often
that more than 5 or 6 will be necessary
Seepage Calculation
In any flow net, the strip between any two
adjacent flow lines is called a flow channel.
Let h1, h2, h3, h4,…hn be the piezometric levels
corresponding to the equipotential lines
The rate of seepage through the flow channel
per unit length (perpendicular to the vertical
section through the permeable layer) can be
calculated as follows
Δq1=Δq2=Δq3=…..=Δqn
Seepage Calculation
From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is equal to kiA. Thus
If the number of flow channels in a flow net is equal to Nf, the
total rate of flow through all the channels per unit length can be
given by
Seepage Calculation
Or
Where H =head difference between the upstream and
downstream sides
Nd = number of potential drop
Nf = number of flow channels in flow net
n = b1/l1=b2/l2=b3/l3=……=n (i.e. the elements are not square)
EXAMPLE
ANSWER
SUMMARY
In this chapter, we’ve discussed Darcy’s Law, definition of hydraulic
conductivity, laboratory and field determination of hydraulic conductivity
The accuracy of the values of k determined in the laboratory depends on
several factor
- Temperature of the fluid
- Viscosity of the fluid
- Trapped air bubbles present in the soil specimen
- Degree of saturation of the soil specimen
- Migration of fines during testing
- Duplication of field conditions in the laboratory
The actual value of the hydraulic conductivity in the field may also be
somewhat different than that obtained in the laboratory because of the
nonhomogeneity of the soil
Hence, proper care should be taken in assessing the order of the magnitude
of k for all design consideration.
Do make a lot of practice on the tutorial questions.
Practice makes better.
End of Week 10 & End of Topic 3
Week 11 : Soil Compaction and Consolidation.
Wasslam & Thank You.
