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    Trend Surface Analysis

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    রুবিয়াস হ্যাগ্রিড
    1. Spatial interpolation techniques like inverse distance weighting (IDW) and Kriging are used to estimate values at unmeasured locations based on measured points. 2. IDW estimates each point as a weighted average of sample points within a neighborhood, with weights inversely related to distance. Kriging fits a function to variogram models describing spatial correlation. 3. Key steps in Kriging include exploratory analysis, variogram modeling to describe spatial correlation, and creating an interpolated surface based on the variogram model. Kriging accounts for spatial trends and correlation and provides standard errors, while IDW can have bulls-eye effects and is limited by the input data range.

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    Trend Surface Analysis

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    রুবিয়াস হ্যাগ্রিড
    47 views42 pages
    1. Spatial interpolation techniques like inverse distance weighting (IDW) and Kriging are used to estimate values at unmeasured locations based on measured points. 2. IDW estimates each point as a weighted average of sample points within a neighborhood, with weights inversely related to distance. Kriging fits a function to variogram models describing spatial correlation. 3. Key steps in Kriging include exploratory analysis, variogram modeling to describe spatial correlation, and creating an interpolated surface based on the variogram model. Kriging accounts for spatial trends and correlation and provides standard errors, while IDW can have bulls-eye effects and is limited by the input data range.

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    Trend_Surface_Analysis

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    1. Spatial interpolation techniques like inverse distance weighting (IDW) and Kriging are used to estimate values at unmeasured locations based on measured points. 2. IDW estimates each point as a weighted average of sample points within a neighborhood, with weights inversely related to distance. Kriging fits a function to variogram models describing spatial correlation. 3. Key steps in Kriging include exploratory analysis, variogram modeling to describe spatial correlation, and creating an interpolated surface based on the variogram model. Kriging accounts for spatial trends and correlation and provides standard errors, while IDW can have bulls-eye effects and is limited by the input data range.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    47 views42 pages

    Trend Surface Analysis

    Uploaded by

    রুবিয়াস হ্যাগ্রিড
    1. Spatial interpolation techniques like inverse distance weighting (IDW) and Kriging are used to estimate values at unmeasured locations based on measured points. 2. IDW estimates each point as a weighted average of sample points within a neighborhood, with weights inversely related to distance. Kriging fits a function to variogram models describing spatial correlation. 3. Key steps in Kriging include exploratory analysis, variogram modeling to describe spatial correlation, and creating an interpolated surface based on the variogram model. Kriging accounts for spatial trends and correlation and provides standard errors, while IDW can have bulls-eye effects and is limited by the input data range.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 42

    Spatial Analysis

    (Trend Surface Analysis)


    Transformations
    • Buffering (Point, Line, Area)
    • Point-in-polygon
    • Polygon Overlay
    • Spatial Interpolation
    – Theissen polygons
    – Inverse-distance weighting
    – Kriging
    – Density estimation
    Basic Approach

    Map New map

    Transformation
    Point-in-polygon

    Select point known to be outside


    Select point to be tested
    Create line segment
    Intersect with all boundary
    segments
    Count intersections
    EVEN=OUTSIDE
    ODD=INSIDE
    Create a buffer: Raster
    Create a Buffer: vector
    Combining maps
    • RASTER
    • As long as maps have same extent,
    resolution, etc, overlay is direct (pixel-to-
    pixel)
    • Otherwise, needs interpolation
    • Use map algebra (Tomlin)
    • Tomlin’s operators
    – Focal, Local, Zonal
    Combining Maps
    • VECTOR
    • A problem
    Max Egenhofer
    Topological Overlay Relations
    Creating new zones

    Town buffer

    River buffer
    Other spatial analysis methods
    • Centrographic analysis (mean center)
    • Dispersion measures (stand. Dist)
    • Point clustering measures (NNS)
    • Moran’s I: Spatial autocorrelation (Clustering of
    neighboring values)
    • Fragmentation and fractional dimension
    • Spatial optimization
    – Point
    – Route
    • Spatial interpolation
    Moran’s I

    http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/proc02/pap1064/p106413.gif
    Spatial autocorrelation
    • Correlation of a field with itself

    Low

    High

    Maximum
    Spatial optimization

    www.giscenter.net/eng/work_03_e.html
    Spatial interpolation
    Linear interpolation

    C
    B

    Half way from A to B,


    Value is (A + B) / 2

    A
    Nonlinear Interpolation

    • When things aren't or shouldn’t be so simple


    • Values computed by piecewise “moving
    window”
    • Basic types:
    1. Trend surface analysis / Polynomial
    2. Minimum Curvature Spline
    3. Inverse Distance Weighted
    4. Kriging
    1. Trend Surface/Polynomial
    • point-based
    • Fits a polynomial to input points
    • When calculating function that will describe
    surface, uses least-square regression fit
    • approximate interpolator
    – Resulting surface doesn’t pass through all data
    points
    – global trend in data, varying slowly overlain by local
    but rapid fluctuations
    Interpolation Software

    • ArcGIS with Geo-statistical Analyst

    • Surfer (Golden Software 7.0)


    • Surface II package (Geological Survey)

    • Matlab/Fotran/Phython/C++
    1. Trend Surface cont.
    • flat but TILTED plane to fit data
    – surface is approximated by linear
    equation (polynomial degree 1)
    – z = a + bx + cy
    • tilted but WARPED plane to fit data
    – surface is approximated by quadratic
    equation (polynomial degree 2)
    – z = a + bx + cy + dx2 + exy + fy2
    Trend Surfaces
    2. Minimum Curvature Splines
    • Fits a minimum-curvature surface through input
    points
    • Like bending a sheet of rubber to pass through
    points
    – While minimizing curvature of that sheet
    • repeatedly applies a smoothing equation
    (piecewise polynomial) to the surface
    – Resulting surface passes through all points
    • best for gently varying surfaces, not for rugged
    ones (can overshoot data values)
    3. Distance Weighted Methods
    3. Inverse Distance Weighted
    • Each input point has local influence that
    diminishes with distance
    • estimates are averages of values at n known
    points within window R

    where w is some function of distance (e.g., w = 1/dk)


    IDW
    • IDW is popular, easy, but problematic
    • Interpolated values limited by the range of the
    data
    • No interpolated value will be outside the
    observed range of z values
    • How many points should be included in the
    averaging?
    • What about irregularly distributed points?
    • What about the map edges?
    IDW Example

    • ozone concentrations at CA measurement


    stations
    1. estimate a complete field, make a map
    2. estimate ozone concentrations at specific
    locations (e.g., Los Angeles)
    Ozone in S. Cal: Text Example

    measuring stations and concentrations


    (point shapefile)
    CA cities (point shapefile)
    CA outline (polygon shapefile)
    DEM (raster)
    IDW Wizard in Geostatistical Analyst
    define data source
    Further define interpolation method

    Power of distance

    4 sectors
    Cross validation
    • removing one of the n observation points and using the remaining n-1 points
    to predict its value.
    • Error = observed - predicted
    Result
    4. Kriging
    • Assumes distance or direction betw. sample points shows
    a spatial correlation that help describe the surface
    • Fits function to
    – Specified number of points OR
    – All points within a window of specified radius
    • Based on an analysis of the data, then an application of
    the results of this analysis to interpolation
    • Most appropriate when you already know about spatially
    correlated distance or directional bias in data
    • Involves several steps
    – Exploratory statistical analysis of data
    – Variogram modeling
    – Creating the surface based on variogram
    Kriging
    • Breaks up topography into 3 elements: Drift (general trend),
    small deviations from the drift and random noise.

    To be stepped over
    Explore with Trend analysis
    • You may wish to remove
    a trend from the dataset
    before using kriging. The
    Trend Analysis tool can
    help identify global
    trends in the input
    dataset.
    Kriging Results
    • Once the variogram has been developed, it
    is used to estimate distance weights for
    interpolation
    • Computationally very intensive w/ lots of
    data points
    • Estimation of the variogram complex
    – No one method is absolute best
    – Results never absolute, assumptions about
    distance, directional bias
    Kriging Example

    Surface has no constant mean


    Maybe no underlying trend

    surface has a constant mean,


    no underlying trend

    allows for a trend


    binary data
    Analysis of Variogram
    Fitting a Model, Directional
    Effects
    How Many Neighbors?
    Cross Validation
    Kriging Result
    • similar pattern to IDW
    • less detail in remote
    areas
    • smooth
    IDW vs. Kriging
    • Kriging appears to
    give a more
    “smooth” look to the
    data
    • Kriging avoids the
    “bulls eye” effect
    • Kriging gives us a
    standard error

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