In order to describe the fluid flow (aim of fluid mechanics) we

generally apply equations for mass and momentum conservation

When describing the flow we must also think to equations that
describe the particular behaviour of the fluid (constitutive
equations) by correlating properties of the flow with
properties of the fluid
Viscosity
Ideal fluids viscosity is zero
Real fluids viscosity non-zero
 normal viscous fluid, viscosity is constant in respect with the rate of
deformation (rate of strain)
 viscous fluids, viscosity varies with the rate of deformation (rate of
 Strain
Strain, in daily language means, “stretching”. In scientific usage, the definition is
extended to mean “deformation”. The concept of strain is complex, but linear strain
can be defined by the Lagrangian formula:

L  L0 L
 
L0 L0
Where  is strain, L0 = baseline length and L is the instantaneous length at the time of
measurement as shown below
Strain rate
The strain rate is the rate by which the deformation occurs, i.e. deformation or
strain per time unit.

 
t

The unit of strain rate is s-1.

The strain rate is negative during shortening, positive during elongation.
The strain rate is equal to velocity gradient, in fact deformation can be described as
motion gradient, strain rate being the velocity gradient (spatial derivative of velocity).

dwx  dwx  ms 1
    s 1
dy  dy  m
  SI
Deformation (strain) when the upper surface moves- wx varies in y direction

x

y

dwx
Rate of strain  
dy
Shear stress

These fluids are called Newtonian fluids

dw x
  
dy

τ is the shear stress exerted by the fluid (drag) [Pa]

 is the fluid viscosity - a constant of proportionality [Pa·s]
dwx/dy is the velocity gradient equivalent to the rate of strain [s-1]
Viscosity is the main quantity that describes the liquid behaviour
We can define viscosity as the internal resistance to motion of a
fluid.

Dynamic viscosity 
kg
Units: 1 Pa  s  1
Pa  s (IS) m s
g
Poise, P (CGS) 1 P= 1
cm  s

10 P = 1 kg·m−1·s−1 = 1 Pa·s
1 cP = 0.001 Pa·s = 1 mPa·s
• Kinematic viscosity υ
It defines the ration between viscous force (characterised by
the dynamic viscosity) and the inertial force (characterisd by
the density)

η
υ
ρ 1
g
2
cm
1S  cm  s 
Units: In CGS system Stokes S g s
cm3
m2
In IS:  υ IS 
s
 Viscosity for newtonian fluids
For newtonian fluids Viscosity varies only with: temperature, pressure,
composition

C 
  C 1  exp 2  For liquids, viscosity decreases with temperature
 T 

C1  T 1,5
η For gases it increases with temperature
T  1, 47  Tb

  0 ebp For liquids the viscosity increases with pressure

For gases the viscosity does not vary with pressure ( only at very high pressures)
 RHEOLOGY
The viscosity depends on the rate of deformation

1. Non-newtonian fluids with time independent viscosity

(viscosity does not depend on the intensity of the force and
the length of its action)
2. Time dependent viscosity
 Non-Newtonian fluids for which viscosity does not
depend on time
Pseudoplastic fluids
(decreasing viscosity with
increasing strain rate):
polymer melts and
polymer solutions
Dilatant fluids ( increasing
viscosity): starch,
suspension of water and
sand
 Bingham fluid (The fluid
flows after a certain shear
stress is applied : tooth
Rheogram paste, mayonnaises
 n   dw n 1 
 dw x  x   dw x 
 rx  K      K      
 dr    dr    dr 

n < 1 Pseudoplastic fluid, viscosity decreases with increasing strain rate

n > 1 Dilatant fluid, viscosity increases with increasing strain rate

Bingham model
dwx
τ yx  τ 0 dy
0
The fluid does not flow

τ yx  τ 0  rx   
dw x
 0 The fluid has constant viscosity
dr
Rheopectic fluid: Apparent viscosity
increases with duration of stress:
lubricants, wipped cream
Thixotropic fluid- Apparent viscosity
decreases with duration of stress:
mud, paints, honey
 Weissenberg effect

newtonian fluid viscoelastic fluid

Note: The viscoelastic fluids presents supplementary normal efforts.

Elastic creep
Fundamental equations of fluid flow
1. The continuity equation (Lecture 2):

dρ 
 ( ρ  w)
dt
   Equivalent
  w      w
t forms
ρ ρ ρ ρ 
 wx  wy  wz   ρ(  w)
t x y z

ρ ρ ρ ρ  wx wy wz 

 wx  wy  wz  ρ   
t x y z  x y z 
2.Momentum conservation (momentum balance)
Considering constant viscosity (Newtonian fluids)
d   
 div( D  grad)  div(  w)  J g ,V  div ( J g , A )
dt
  ρwi i=x,y,z D=

J g,A  0
p Generation in the volume, rate of property
v G,mom p 
(momentum) generated in the control
x
volume by pressure
 
Fm    V  g Mass forces generated in the volume

v G,mom   v G,mom  p   v G,mom  Fm  

dp
   gx Total property generation in the
dx volume
 N-S equations are vectorial expressions and are written for each
coordinate x, y, z

 (w x )  2  p
(1)  ( w  )(w x )     (w x )  (w x )  (  w )   gx
 x

 (w y )   p
(2)  ( w  )(w y )     2 (w y )  (w y )  (  w )   gy
 y

(3) (w z )   p
 ( w   )(w z )     2 (w z )  (w z )  (  w )     gz
 z
Navier Stockes equations for constant
density and viscosity
 wx wx wx wx  p   2 wx  2 wx  2 wx 
   wx  wy  wz     g x    2   
2 
 t x y z  x  x y z 
2

 wy wy wy wy  p   2 wy  2 w y  2 wy 

   wx  wy  wz     g y    2   
 
 t x y z  y  x y z 2
2

 wz wz wz wz  p   2 wz  2 wz  2 wz 
   wx  wy  wz     g z    2   
 t x y z  z  x y z 2
2

The form given by equations (1-3) corresponds to Newtonian
fluids in laminar flow
The N-S equations are used to describe the flow through tubes
and pipes, or exterior flow . This means to integrate the
equations with adequate boundary conditions (possible only for
particular cases)
Finally we can obtain relations that give the variation with time
and space coordinates of the velocity (velocity profiles)