GAS POWER CYCLES

GAS POWER CYCLES

Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and
refrigeration.
Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories:
power cycles and refrigeration cycles.

The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called
engines, and the thermodynamic cycles they operate on are called power cycles.

The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect are called refrigerators, air
conditioners, or heat pumps, and the cycles they operate on are
called refrigeration cycles.

Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapour cycles,
depending on the phase of the working fluid.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another way: closed and open cycles.
In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle
and is recirculated.
In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being
recirculated.
In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air–fuel
mixture at the end of each cycle.

The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go through a
complete thermodynamic cycle.

Heat engines are categorized as internal combustion and external combustion engines,
depending on how the heat is supplied to the working fluid.

In external combustion engines (such as steam power plants), heat is supplied to the
working fluid from an external source such as a furnace, a geothermal well, a nuclear
reactor, or even the sun.

In internal combustion engines (such as automobile engines), this is done by burning the
fuel within the system boundaries
 9–1 BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF
POWER CYCLES

The cycles encountered in actual devices are difficult to analyze because of the presence
of complicating effects, such as friction, and the absence of sufficient time for
establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle.
When the actual cycle is stripped of all the internal irreversibilities and complexities, we
end up with a cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of
internally reversible processes.

Such a cycle is called an ideal cycle.

A simple idealized model enables engineers to study the effects of the major parameters
that dominate the cycle without getting bogged down in the details.

The cycles discussed in this chapter are somewhat idealized, but they still retain the general
characteristics of the actual cycles they represent.

The conclusions reached from the analysis of ideal cycles are also applicable to actual
cycles.
The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle, the ideal cycle for spark-ignition automobile
engines, for example, increases with the compression ratio.

This is also the case for actual automobile engines.

The numerical values obtained from the analysis of an ideal cycle, however, are not
necessarily representative of the actual cycles, and care should be exercised in their
interpretation.

The simplified analysis presented in this chapter for various power cycles of practical
interest may also serve as the starting point for a more in-depth study
 Heat engines are designed for the purpose of converting thermal energy to work, and
their performance is expressed in terms of the thermal efficiency which is the ratio of
the net work produced by the engine to the total heat input

Recall that heat engines that operate on a totally reversible cycle, such as the Carnot
cycle, have the highest thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating between the same
temperature levels.

That is, nobody can develop a cycle more efficient than the Carnot cycle.

If the Carnot cycle is the best possible cycle, why do we not use it as the model cycle for
all the heat engines instead of bothering with several so-called ideal cycles?

Most cycles encountered in practice differ significantly from the Carnot cycle, which
makes it unsuitable as a realistic model.

Each ideal cycle discussed in this chapter is related to a specific work-producing device
and is an idealized version of the actual cycle
The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not
necessarily externally reversible.

They may involve irreversibilities external to the system such as heat transfer through a
finite temperature difference.

Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle, in general, is less than that of a totally
reversible cycle operating between the same temperature limits.

The idealizations and simplifications commonly employed in the analysis of power

cycles can be summarized as follows:

1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium
manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and
heat transfer through them is negligible.
On both P-v and T-s diagrams, the area enclosed by the process curve represents the net
work of the cycle.
 9–2 THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE IN ENGINEERING

The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversible processes: isothermal heat
addition, isentropic expansion, isothermal heat rejection, and isentropic compression.

The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston–cylinder device) or a

steady-flow system (utilizing two turbines and two compressors, as shown in Fig. 9–6),
and either a gas or a vapor can be
utilized as the working fluid. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle
that can be executed between a heat source at temperature T H and a sink at
temperature T L , and its thermal efficiency is expressed as
The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a piston–cylinder device) or a
steady-flow system (utilizing two turbines and two compressors, as shown in Fig. 9–6),
and either a gas or a vapor can be utilized as the working fluid.

FIGURE 9–6
A steady-flow
Carnot engine.

The
  Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source
at temperature and a sink at temperature , and its thermal efficiency is expressed as

The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from its being a standard against which the actual
or the ideal cycles can be compared.
 
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle that can be executed between a heat source
at temperature and a sink at temperature , and its thermal efficiency is expressed as

The real value of the Carnot cycle comes from its being a standard against which the
actual or the ideal cycles can be compared.

Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at which

heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average temperature at
which heat is rejected from the system.
The thermal efficiency of the Carnot cycle is a function of the sink and source
temperatures only, and the thermal efficiency relation for the Carnot cycle (Eq. 9–2)
conveys an important message that is equally applicable to both ideal and actual cycles:

Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average temperature at

which heat is supplied to the system or with a decrease in the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the system

The source and sink temperatures that can be used in practice are not without limits

The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the maximum temperature that
the components of the heat engine, such as the piston or the turbine blades, can
withstand.
The lowest temperature is limited by the temperature of the cooling medium utilized in
the cycle such as a lake, a river, or the atmospheric air.
9–3 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS

In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
Spark-ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines are familiar
examples of devices that operate on gas cycles.
Energy is provided by burning a fuel within the system boundaries.
That is, they are internal combustion engines.

Working on an open cycle is the characteristic of

all internal combustion engines.
The actual gas power cycles are rather complex.
To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the following approximations,
commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always
behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally
reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-
addition process from an external source
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection
process that restores the working fluid to its initial state.

A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is

frequently referred to as an air-standard cycle.

Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the analysis even more is that air has
constant specific heats whose values are determined at room temperature (258C, or 778F).

When this assumption is utilized, the air-standard assumptions are called the cold-air-
standard assumptions.
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as an
air-standard cycle.
9–4 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between two

fixed positions called the top dead center (TDC)—the
position of the piston when it forms the
smallest volume in the cylinder—and the bottom dead
center (BDC)— the position of the piston when it forms
the largest volume in the cylinder.
The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the
largest distance that the piston can travel in one
direction, and it is called the stroke of the engine.
The diameter of the piston is called the bore.
The air or air–fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder
through the intake valve, and the combustion products
are expelled from the cylinder through the exhaust
valve.
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder
when the piston is at TDC is called the clearance
volume.
The volume displaced by the piston as it moves
between TDC and BDC is called the
displacement volume.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the
cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is
called the compression ratio r of the engine:
Another term frequently used in conjunction with reciprocating engines is the mean
effective pressure (MEP).
It is a fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke,
would produce the same amount of net work as that produced during the actual
cycle.

The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to compare the performances of
reciprocating engines of equal size.
The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers more net work per cycle and thus
performs better.
Reciprocating engines are classified as
spark-ignition (SI) engines or compression-
ignition (CI) engines, depending on how the
combustion process in the cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the
air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug.
In CI engines, the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited
as a result of compressing the mixture above its
self-ignition temperature.

 Otto cycles -ideal cycles for the SI

reciprocating engine
 Diesel cycles- ideal cycles for the CI
reciprocating engine
9–5 OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.
In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes (two mechanical
cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions for each
thermodynamic cycle.
These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines.

Towards the end of expansion stroke, the exhaust valve opens and the combustion gases that
are above the atmospheric pressure rush out of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
This process is called exhaust blowdown, and most combustion gases
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.

In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes (two mechanical
cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions for each
thermodynamic cycle.
These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines.
Wcycle   PdV
Two-stroke engine cycle

In two-stroke engines, all four

functions described above are executed
in just two strokes: the power stroke
and the compression stroke.

Note that there is one crankshaft

revolutions per 2-stroke engine cycle

The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles described is

not a simple task.
However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if the air-standard assumptions are
utilized.
The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the ideal
Otto cycle. It consists of four internally reversible processes:
The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles described is
not a simple task.
However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if the air-standard assumptions are
utilized.
The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating conditions, is the ideal
Otto cycle. It consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2  Isentropic compression
2-3  Constant-volume heat addition
3-4  Isentropic expansion
4-1  Constant-volume heat rejection
ideal Otto cycle It consists of four internally
reversible processes

1-2  Isentropic compression
2-3  Constant-volume heat addition
3-4  Isentropic expansion
4-1  Constant-volume heat rejection
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic
and potential energies, the energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, on a
unit-mass basis, as

No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take place at
constant volume.

 Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and and . Thus,

Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying
give

Where
  r is the compression ratio and
k is the specific heat ratio /
Therefore, the increase in thermal efficiency with the compression ratio is not as
pronounced at high compression ratios.
Also, when high compression ratios are used, the temperature of the air–fuel mixture
rises above the autoignition temperature of the fuel (the temperature at which the fuel
ignites without the help of a spark) during the combustion process, causing an early and
rapid burn of the fuel at some point or points ahead of the flame front, followed by
almost instantaneous inflammation of the end gas.
This premature ignition of the fuel, called autoignition, produces an audible noise,
which is called engine knock.
Autoignition in spark-ignition engines cannot be tolerated because it hurts performance
and can cause engine damage.
The requirement that autoignition not be allowed places an upper limit on the
compression ratios that can be used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines.
If we analyzed a two-stroke engine operating on an ideal Otto
cycle with the same values, the power output would be calculated as
 9–6 DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION
ENGINES
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines.
The CI engine, first proposed by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890s, is very similar to the SI engine
discussed in the last section, differing mainly in the method of initiating combustion.
In spark-ignition engines (also known as gasoline engines), the air–fuel mixture is
compressed to a temperature that is below the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and the
combustion process is initiated by firing a spark plug.

In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is compressed to a temperature that
is above the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts on contact as the
fuel is injected into this hot air.

Therefore, the spark plug is replaced by a fuel injector

in diesel engines
The Carnot cycle can be executed in a closed system (a
piston–cylinder device) or a steady-flow system (utilizing two turbines and
two compressors, as shown in Fig. 9–6), and either a gas or a vapor can be
utilized as the working fluid.
In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed during the compression
stroke, and the compression ratios are limited by the onset of auto ignition or engine
knock.
In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression stroke, eliminating the
possibility of auto ignition.
Therefore, diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression ratios,
typically between 12 and 24.
Not having to deal with the problem of auto ignition has another benefit: many of the
stringent requirements placed on the gasoline can now be removed, and fuels that are
less refined (thus less expensive) can be used in diesel engines.

That is, process 1-2 is isentropic compression,

2-3 is constant-pressure heat addition,
3-4 is isentropic expansion, and
4-1 is constant-volume heat rejection.
That is, process
1-2 is isentropic compression,
2-3 is constant-pressure heat addition,
3-4 is isentropic expansion, and
4-1 is constant-volume heat rejection.
 Noting that the Diesel cycle is executed in a piston–cylinder device, which forms a
closed system, the amount of heat transferred to the working fluid at constant pressure
and rejected from it at constant volume can be expressed as

We now define a new quantity, the cutoff ratio r c , as the ratio of the cylinder volumes
after and before the combustion process:
Utilizing this definition and the isentropic ideal-gas relations for processes 1-2 and 3-4,
we see that the thermal efficiency relation reduces to

Thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel

cycle as a function of compression and The ideal cycle based on this concept is
cutoff ratios (k = 1.4). called the dual cycle and P-v diagram for
it is given in Fig. 9–23