Code Division Multiple Access

Nahrain University 2013

1
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access

 Is an example for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

 To understand the main function of it , let us remember the
frequency allocation and time allocation in GSM system

TDMA based system

2
CDMA based system

• All users share the same frequency

time domain.
• Users separated by the codes.
• Codes are orthogonal:
• FDD frequency division duplex.
– Uplink, downlink in separate
frequency bands
• TDD time division duplex.
– Uplink, downlink in the same
frequency band and separated in
time.
3
Evolution to IMT 3G

4
Some Facts of CDMA
 As example for Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
 Each station is assigned an m-bit code (or chip sequence)
 Typically m = 64, 128, ... (in our examples m = 4, 8, …)
 To send 1 bit, station sends chip sequence
 To send 0 bit, station sends complement of chip sequence

 Example: 1 MHz band with 100 stations

• FDM
– each station a 10 kHz band
– assume that you can send 1 bit/Hz: 10 kbps
• CDMA
– each station uses the whole 1 MHz band
– less than 100 chips per channel: more than 10 kbps

5
6
CDMA basics 1

Each station has unique -bit chipping code or complement

Bipolar notation: binary 0 is represented by 1 (or short: )
Two chips S and T, are orthogonal if S.T=0;
is the inner (scalar) product:

7
CDMA basics 2
• Assume that all stations are perfectly synchronous
• Assume that all codes are pair wise orthogonal
• Assume that if two or more stations transmit simultaneously, the
bipolar signals add up linearly

Example
S = (+ – + – + – + –)
T = (+ + – – – + + –)
U = (+ – – + – – + +)

• Check that codes are pair wise orthogonal

• If S,T,U send simultaneously, a receiver receives
R = S+T+U = (+3, –1, –1, –1, –1, –1, +3, –1)
8
CDMA basics 3

• To decode a received signal R for sender s, one needs to calculate

the normalized inner product R·S.

R·S = (+3, –1, –1, –1, –1, –1, +3, –1)·(+ – + – + – + –)/8
= (+3+1–1+1–1+1+3+1)/8
= 8/8 = 1 … by accident?
R·S = (S+T+U)·S = S·S +T·S +U·S = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1
• With orthogonal codes we can safely decode the original signals

9
CDMA: How much noise can we tolerate?

• We now add random noise to before we receive the signal:

R’ = R + N,
where N is an m-digit noise vector.
• Assume that chipping codes are balanced;
as many “+” as “–”
• If N = (α, α, …, α) for any (positive or negative) α, then the
• noise N will not matter when we decode the received signal.

R’·S = (R+N)·S = S·S +(orthogonal codes)·S +N·S = 1 + 0 + 0 = 1

• How much random (white) noise can we tolerate?

10
 CDMA: Summary

+ all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed

+ reduces frequency selective fading and interference
+ base stations can use the same frequency range
+ several base stations can detect and recover the signal
+ soft handover between base stations
+ forward error correction and encryption can be easily
integrated
– precise power control necessary
– higher complexity of receiver and sender

Examples: “Third generation” mobile phones, UMTS, IMT-2000.

11
Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF) coding

12
Walsh Function

13
EXAMPLE:

14
 One cell reuse is typical for CDMA

In CDMA, all cells use the same carrier frequency

(frequency reuse = 1)
 makes soft handover possible
 requires efficient power control
 makes system load control more complex

15
Softer Handover

Softer handover reception

 combines signals from one base station

16
Mobile Soft Handover Implementation with Rake Receiver

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Evolution to IMT 3G

18
IS-95 cdmaOne
• IS-95 uses FDD with 25MHz in each direction:
824 to 849 Uplink band
869 to 894 Down link
• IS-95B (cdmaOne) provides data rates in the range of
64 to 115 kb/s in increments of 8 kb/s over a 1.25
MHz channel.
• Each cell uses a carrier with a
bandwidth of 1.25MHz,
which is divided into 64 data

1.2
and signaling channels by the

M5
Hz
use of orthogonal CDMA
codes. 19
IS-95 standard/ 2G / 1993

20
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24
 3rdGeneration of Mobile Systems
 Goal to create a global system enabling global roaming
 International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT-2000)
requirements:
o Throughput rates:
• Up to 2 Mb/s indoors and pedestrian throughput rate
384kb/s for terminals moving with the speed 120 km/h and
less in urban areas
• 144 kb/s in rural areas and fast moving vehicles
o Support global mobility
o Service independent of radio interface technology (multimode
terminals must be used)
o Seamless switching between fixed and wireless
communications
o Support of circuit-and packet-switched services
o Support of multimedia and real-time services
25
Evolution to IMT 3G

26
 3rdGeneration cont.

 Three different IMT-2000 standards were agreed upon:

o UTRA (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access) –wideband CDMA
transmission with FDD and TDD modes and 5 MHz carrier
spacing
o MC CDMA (Multicarrier CDMA)
o UWC136 (Universal Wireless Communications) –based on
convergence of IS-136 and GSM EDGE –extension of TDMA
 Initially the UMTS system will use the GSM core network
 Interworking functions added to enable roaming and other
services
 In longer perspective all IMT-2000 systems will work
with IP core network

27
GSM Enhancement
Want to deliver data as well as voice.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
• Provide connectivity to IP networks (Internet).
• Construction of a packet switched core network, to run the circuit
switched network that was originally built for GSM.
• A single time slot may be shared by multiple users for transferring
packet mode data
• Each slot can handle up to 20 kb/s. Each user may be allocated up to 8
slots
• Data rates up to about 160 kb/s per user are possible.
Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE)
• Higher modulation efficiency
• Support IP-based services in GSM at rates up to 384 kb/s
• EDGE is popular in North America, where the allocation of carrier
frequencies has made it hard for GSM operators to upgrade to UMTS.

28
UMTS Radio Access Network Architecture

 There are 3 main elements of architecture:

o User Equipment (UE):
• Mobile equipment –radio terminal
• UMTS Subscriber Identity Module (USIM) –smart card
similar to SIM in GSM –contains subscriber identity,
authentication algorithms, encryption keys etc
o UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) –
• BS’s called Node B –channel coding, data interleaving rate
matching, modulation etc.
• Radio Network Controllers (RNCs) –manage radio
resources assigned to them, participate in handovers,
connected to single MSC/VLR for routing of circuit-
switched and to single SGSN for packet-switched traffic

29
UMTS Radio Access Network Architecture
o Core Network (CN) –shared with GSM and GPRS:
• Home Location Register
• Mobile Switching Centre/Visitor Location Register
• Gateway MSC
• Serving GPRS Support Node
• Gateway GPRS Support Node
 Interfaces in UMTS have been defined in detail to allow
different elements of system to be produced by different
manufactures
o Uu Interface –radio interface between terminals and BS
o Iub Interface –between BS and RNC
o Iu Interface –connects UTRAN with core network

30
31
32
2008

33
UMTS: FDD

• Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)

• The chip rate for spectrum spreading is 3.84 Mc/s.
• The maximum transmitter power of the user
equipment is in the range of 21 to 33 dBm (that is, 125
mW to 2 W)

34
 Trend in BW

• Transmission bandwidths of current / future cellular

wireless standards.

35
36
 CDMA 2000 Multicarrier System
• Cdma2000 supports chip rates of N×1.2288 Mcps where
N=1, 3, 6, 9, 12). For N=1 the spreading is similar to IS-
95. There are two options for chip rate for N>1. Theses
are multicarrier and direct spread.

37
Evolution of Wireless Mobile Communication

38
Evolution of Wireless Mobile Communication

39
 1G and 2G cellular Systems

 Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

• Developed by Bell Labs in the 1970s and first used
commercially in the United States in 1983. It operates in the 800
MHz band (1G) by AT&T
o Full duplex (FDX) operation : simultaneous two-way
communication
o two 30 kHz channels (forward & reverse)

 Analog frequency modulation (FM) used exclusively

 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)one channel per
pair of users

40
 2G cellular Systems
 2G Overview
• The European Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), is
introduced in 1992
• The North American Digital AMPS (D-AMPS), is introduced in
o 1994IS-54: FDMA/TDMA access mode
o IS-95: CDMA access mode

 The First CDMA commercial service was started in Korea in 1996

 The Japanese Digital Cellular (JDC) system, is introduced in 1992,
PDC (Personal Digital Cellular)
 The North American Personal Communication System operating at
1900 MHz (PCS 1900)

41
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43
44
45
 IMT-2000
 International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT)-2000Better known
as 3G or 3rd Generation, is a family of standards for mobile
telecommunications defined by the International Telecommunication
Union
• Which includes GSM EDGE, UMTS, and CDMA2000 as well as
DECT and WiMAX
• Compared to 2G and 2.5G services, 3G allows simultaneous use of
speech and data services and higher data rates (up to 14.0 Mbit/s on
the downlink and 5.8 Mbit/s on the uplink with HSPA+)
• Thus, 3G networks enable network operators to offer users a wider
range of more advanced services while achieving greater network
capacity through improved spectral efficiency

46
2G vs. 3G

47
 3G Technologies
 Two key Technologies : All based on CDMA technology
Synchronous Vs. Asynchronous
• Synchronous
• (3GPP2)Synchronous method that obtain standard time using GPS Each
Base Station uses the same PN code
• Base Station classification PN code with time epoch difference
CDMA2000 1X, EV-DO, EV-DV

• Asynchronous
• (3GPP)Asynchronous method with different PN code for each Base
Station W-CDMA, HSPA, HSPA+

48
3G Technologies

49
 4G Wireless -3GPP LTE
3GPP LTE (Long Term Evolution)
• the last step toward the 4th generation (4G) of radio technologies
designed to increase the capacity and speed of mobile telephone networks
• Considered as 3.5G system
• Uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access(OFDMA) on the
downlink
• Downlink peak rates of at least 100 Mbps, an uplink of at least 50 Mbit/s
• RAN round-trip times of less than 10 ms
• Supports scalable carrier bandwidths, from 20 MHz down to 1.4 MHz
• Supports both FDD and TDD
• Adopted all-IP signaling and networking (A significant departure from 3G
W-CDMA, which adopts circuit switching)

50
3GPP LTE

51
3GPP LTE

52
53
54
 4G
4G Fourth generation (4G) also called Next Generation Network (NGN) offers one
platform for different wireless networks. A successor of 2G and 3G, 4G promises a
downloading speed of 100Mbps and is yet to shower its wonders on. then with the
case of Fourth Generation that is 4G in addition to that of the services of 3G some
additional features such as Multi-Media Newspapers, also to watch T.V programs
with the clarity as to that of an ordinary T.V. In addition, we can send Data much
faster than that of the previous generations. A 4G system is expected to provide a
comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to laptop
computer wireless modems, Smartphone’s, and other mobile devices. Facilities such
as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed
multimedia may be provided to users. In 4G the integration of network and its
applications is seamless therefore there is no risk of delay. While implementing 4G
the cost issue needs to be taken into consideration so that users can benefit from
this technological development fully.

55
 4G

Present technology especially in areas of memory, bandwidth, and power, as well

as new technological solution that should be available in near future are
investigated in this paper. This paper should be able to present a picture of the
physical constraints of MANET at present and also suggests some areas where
previously considered as limitations may no longer exist, or will vanish in the near
future. This paper is organized in the following way: Section 1 introduces the
different types of wireless mobile generations. Section 2 presents Applications of
the 4G design.

56
Reference Model of 4G System

57
Reference Model of 4G System

58
APPLICATIONS OF 4G

With the increase in the data rates, the mobile phones are made to perform higher
performance applications. In 4G the mobile phone is not only for calling but it’s
something extraordinary
device that can be used for variety of purposes. One such application in 4G is context
awareness. For example if the mobile user is passing by an office where he/she is
having an appointment to meet someone and they have forgotten the appointment.
If the office location, address and geographical location matches the one user has
already stored in the phone, he/she will receive information about the appointment
and will be reminded that you need to perform this activity. Telemedicine is another
application of 4G [8]. Using telemedicine a patient can send general reading like
temperature, glucose level and blood pressure to the doctor online. Or if someone
needs to know about their family member’s health continuously they can receive all
the information through telemedicine by using 4G technology.

59
 APPLICATIONS OF 4G

LTE
Long Term Evolution is an emerging technology for higher data rates. It is also
referred as 3.9 G or super 3G technology. LTE is developed as an improvement to
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System by 3G Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP). LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA). The
download rate in LTE is 150 Mbps and it utilizes the available spectrum in a very
sophisticated way. In LTE the IP packet delay is less than 5 mille seconds which
provides the experience of wired broadband internet access in wireless
environment. The mobile TV broadcast is facilitated by LTE over LTE network. LTE is a
standard for wireless data communications technology and an evolution of the
GSM/UMTS standards. The goal of LTE is to increase the capacity and speed of
wireless data networks using
new DSP (Digital Signal Processing) techniques and modulations that were
developed in the beginning of the new millennium. Its wireless interface is
incompatible with 2G and 3G networks, and so it must be operated on a separate
wireless spectrum. The LTE specification provides down-link peak rates of 300
Mbit/s, uplink peak rates of 75 Mbit/s and QoS provisions
permitting round-trip times of less than 10 ms.
60
WiMAX

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

is a communication technology for wirelessly delivering highspeed Internet service
to large geographical areas. It is a part of a “fourth generation,” or 4G, of wireless-
communication technology, WiMAX far surpasses the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless
range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN), offering a metropolitan
area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles). WiMAX is based upon
IEEE Std 802.16.

61
 NETWORKS OF 4G

Although there are different ideas leading towards 4G,

some concept and network components frequently come
up as a supporting and significant solutions that help
achieve progress towards 4G. In this section we are going
to investigate and explain technological innovations such
as MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output), OFDMA
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) that
could significantly increase security, mobility and
throughput of 4G.

62
 MIMO
Multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO is the use of
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve communication performance. It is one of several
forms of smart antenna technology. MIMO can be sub-
divided into three main categories, precoding, spatial
multiplexing or SM, and diversity coding. Precoding is multi-
stream beam forming, in the narrowest definition. In more
general terms, it is considered to be all spatial processing
that occurs at the transmitter. In (single layer) beam forming,
the same signal is emitted from each of the transmit
antennas with appropriate phase (and sometimes gain)
weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the
receiver input.
63
 MIMO

Spatial multiplexing
requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial
multiplexing, a high rate signal is split into multiple lower
rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different
transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these
signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with sufficiently
different spatial signatures, the receiver can separate these
streams into (almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing
is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity
at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). Spatial multiplexing
can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple
receivers, known as space-division multiple accesses.
64
 MIMO
Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is no channel
knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity methods, a single
stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial multiplexing) is
transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called
space-time coding. The signal is emitted from each of the
transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding. Diversity
coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna
links to enhance signal diversity. Spatial multiplexing can also be
combined with precoding when the channel is known at the
transmitter or combined with diversity coding when decoding
reliability is in trade-off. Increasing speed and range, MIMO is
already accepted by researchers as one of the main components
of projects such as WiBro, WiMAX, WLAN, 802.11n, UMTS R8
LTE, and UMB.
65
OFDMA
Data comm. Research Company proposed the simplest way to
implement MIMO is by sharing frequency using OFDM, that
together significantly can increase performance by extending
range, boosting speed and Improving reliability. OFDMA can also
be described as a combination of frequency domain and time
domain multiple access, where the resources are partitioned
in the time-frequency space, and slots are assigned along the
OFDM symbol index as well as OFDM sub-carrier index. OFDMA
is considered as highly suitable for broadband wireless networks,
due to advantages including scalability and MIMO-friendliness,
and ability to take advantage of channel frequency selectivity.
Together with MIMO, OFDMA is another
component of 4G that as the alternative to CDMA, promises high
data capacity and spectral efficiency.
66
 OFDMA
Some of the major advantages are its flexibility of deployment across various
frequency bands with little needed modification to the air interface. Averaging
interferences from neighboring cells, by using different basic carrier permutations
between users in different cells. Interferences within the cell are averaged by using
allocation with cyclic permutations. Enables Single Frequency Network coverage,
where coverage problem exists and gives excellent coverage. Offers Frequency
diversity by spreading the carriers all over the used spectrum. Allows per
channel or per sub channel power control.

67
 SERVICES PROVIDED BY 4G
4G will likely become a unification of different wireless networks, including
wireless LAN technologies public cellular networks (2.5G, 3G), and even personal
area networks. Under this umbrella, 4G needs to support a wide range of mobile
devices that can roam across different types of networks. These devices would
have to support Different networks, meaning that one device would have to have
the capability of working on different networks. One solution to this “multi-
network functional device” is a software defined radio. QoS assurance is important
for real time traffics like Voice over IP (VoIP), online gaming, IP TV and video
streaming etc. QoS enables network administrators to avoid network congestion
and manage the network resources efficiently. The goal of the 4G is to provide the
users the facility of Always Best Connected (ABC concept). Fourth generation of
networks is a combination of different networks. It gives a platform for various
technologies to be accessed. To provide QoS in 4G is not simple and easy job as
one has to deal with different parameters in different technologies. Like if a user is
moving and changing his coverage network, so to provide service under QoS
framework is challenging. While a mobile user is moving from one network to
another network his communication session needs to be maintained seamlessly
irrelevant of the coverage network. Similar is the case with video conferencing and
video streaming, the users like to receive the services seamlessly.
68
 SERVICES PROVIDED BY 4G
There are some protocols designed to maintain the seamless communication of the users
while moving or in other words to minimize the latency and packet loss of the ongoing
communication session. The mobility protocols are Mobile IPv6, Hierarchical MIPv6, Fast
MIPv6 and some more (details of all these protocols are given in chapter Handovers). These
protocols can help in improving the mobility management of mobile users. In order to
provide QoS to the mobile users we propose a combination of mobility protocol Seamless
Mobile IPv6 (SMIPv6) and Session Imitation Protocol (SIP). There are two types of losses
when a mobile user switches network, one is called segment packet loss and the other is
called edge packet loss. Segment packet loss is because of the undeterministic nature of the
handoff while the edge packet loss is between the Mobility Anchor Point (MAP) and the MN.
To minimize these losses different approaches are used, to minimize edge packet loss the MN
is moved as close to the MAP as possible, while for the segmented packet loss two
approaches are used one is synchronized packet simulcast (SPS) and hybrid simulcast
mechanism are used. In SPS the packets are sent to both the current network as well the
potential network the MN is approaching [14]. While hybrid simulcast mean that the mobile
node informs the network about the handoff to be taken into effect but it is decided by the
network to which AR the MN shall attach. This way the packet loss is minimized (the detailed
mechanism is given in chapter of handover). Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is used to
manage mobility of different entities such as session, terminal, service and personal mobility.
It facilitates mobility and maintains the real time multimedia sessions. SIP is an application
layer protocol therefore it can work both in IPv4 and IPv6. SIP work along with other
protocols Such as Real Time Transport Protocol (RTP). 69
70
71
 1-2G
Mobile System summery
A Brief description of the generations of mobile communication is
given in below:
1G (or 1-G) refers to the first-generation of wireless telephone technology, mobile
telecommunications. These are the analog telecommunications standards that
were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital
telecommunications. The main difference between two succeeding mobile
telephone systems, 1G and 2G, is that the radio signals that 1G networks use are
analog, while 2G networks are digital.
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second
generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM
standard in Finland by
Radiolinja in 1991. Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors
were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were
significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone
penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS
text messages.
72
 3G

3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for

mobile phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International
Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International
Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide area wireless voice
telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile
environment. ITU has not provided a clear definition of the data rate users can
expect from3G equipment or providers.
3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the UE
(User Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be sure
the network is the intended one and not an impersonator. 3G networks use the
KASUMI block crypto instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. 3G can implement
various network technologies such as UMTS, GSM, CDMA, WCDMA, CDMA200,
TDMA and EDGE.

73
 4G
4G Fourth generation (4G) also called Next Generation Network (NGN) offers one
platform for different wireless networks. A successor of 2G and 3G, 4G promises a
downloading speed of 100Mbps and is yet to shower its wonders on. then with the
case of Fourth Generation that is 4G in addition to that of the services of 3G some
additional features such as Multi-Media Newspapers, also to watch T.V programs
with the clarity as to that of an ordinary T.V. In addition, we can send Data much
faster than that of the previous generations. A 4G system is expected to provide a
comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to laptop
computer wireless modems, Smartphone’s, and other mobile devices. Facilities such
as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed
multimedia may be provided to users. In 4G the integration of network and its
applications is seamless therefore there is no risk of delay. While implementing 4G
the cost issue needs to be taken into consideration so that users can benefit from
this technological development fully.

74
 4G

Present technology especially in areas of memory, bandwidth, and power, as well

as new technological solution that should be available in near future are
investigated in this paper. This paper should be able to present a picture of the
physical constraints of MANET at present and also suggests some areas where
previously considered as limitations may no longer exist, or will vanish in the near
future. This paper is organized in the following way: Section 1 introduces the
different types of wireless mobile generations. Section 2 presents Applications of
the 4G design.

75
APPLICATIONS OF 4G

With the increase in the data rates, the mobile phones are made to perform higher
performance applications. In 4G the mobile phone is not only for calling but it’s
something extraordinary
device that can be used for variety of purposes. One such application in 4G is context
awareness. For example if the mobile user is passing by an office where he/she is
having an appointment to meet someone and they have forgotten the appointment.
If the office location, address and geographical location matches the one user has
already stored in the phone, he/she will receive information about the appointment
and will be reminded that you need to perform this activity. Telemedicine is another
application of 4G [8]. Using telemedicine a patient can send general reading like
temperature, glucose level and blood pressure to the doctor online. Or if someone
needs to know about their family member’s health continuously they can receive all
the information through telemedicine by using 4G technology.

76
 APPLICATIONS OF 4G

LTE
Long Term Evolution is an emerging technology for higher data rates. It is also
referred as 3.9 G or super 3G technology. LTE is developed as an improvement to
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System by 3G Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP). LTE uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA). The
download rate in LTE is 150 Mbps and it utilizes the available spectrum in a very
sophisticated way. In LTE the IP packet delay is less than 5 mille seconds which
provides the experience of wired broadband internet access in wireless
environment. The mobile TV broadcast is facilitated by LTE over LTE network. LTE is a
standard for wireless data communications technology and an evolution of the
GSM/UMTS standards. The goal of LTE is to increase the capacity and speed of
wireless data networks using
new DSP (Digital Signal Processing) techniques and modulations that were
developed in the beginning of the new millennium. Its wireless interface is
incompatible with 2G and 3G networks, and so it must be operated on a separate
wireless spectrum. The LTE specification provides down-link peak rates of 300
Mbit/s, uplink peak rates of 75 Mbit/s and QoS provisions
permitting round-trip times of less than 10 ms.
77
WiMAX

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

is a communication technology for wirelessly delivering highspeed Internet service
to large geographical areas. It is a part of a “fourth generation,” or 4G, of wireless-
communication technology, WiMAX far surpasses the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless
range of a conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN), offering a metropolitan
area network with a signal radius of about 50 km (30 miles). WiMAX is based upon
IEEE Std 802.16.

78
 NETWORKS OF 4G

Although there are different ideas leading towards 4G,

some concept and network components frequently come
up as a supporting and significant solutions that help
achieve progress towards 4G. In this section we are going
to investigate and explain technological innovations such
as MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output), OFDMA
(Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) that
could significantly increase security, mobility and
throughput of 4G.

79
 MIMO
Multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO is the use of
multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
improve communication performance. It is one of several
forms of smart antenna technology. MIMO can be sub-
divided into three main categories, precoding, spatial
multiplexing or SM, and diversity coding. Precoding is multi-
stream beam forming, in the narrowest definition. In more
general terms, it is considered to be all spatial processing
that occurs at the transmitter. In (single layer) beam forming,
the same signal is emitted from each of the transmit
antennas with appropriate phase (and sometimes gain)
weighting such that the signal power is maximized at the
receiver input.
80
 MIMO

Spatial multiplexing
requires MIMO antenna configuration. In spatial
multiplexing, a high rate signal is split into multiple lower
rate streams and each stream is transmitted from a different
transmit antenna in the same frequency channel. If these
signals arrive at the receiver antenna array with sufficiently
different spatial signatures, the receiver can separate these
streams into (almost) parallel channels. Spatial multiplexing
is a very powerful technique for increasing channel capacity
at higher signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). Spatial multiplexing
can also be used for simultaneous transmission to multiple
receivers, known as space-division multiple accesses.
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 MIMO
Diversity Coding techniques are used when there is no channel
knowledge at the transmitter. In diversity methods, a single
stream (unlike multiple streams in spatial multiplexing) is
transmitted, but the signal is coded using techniques called
space-time coding. The signal is emitted from each of the
transmit antennas with full or near orthogonal coding. Diversity
coding exploits the independent fading in the multiple antenna
links to enhance signal diversity. Spatial multiplexing can also be
combined with precoding when the channel is known at the
transmitter or combined with diversity coding when decoding
reliability is in trade-off. Increasing speed and range, MIMO is
already accepted by researchers as one of the main components
of projects such as WiBro, WiMAX, WLAN, 802.11n, UMTS R8
LTE, and UMB.
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OFDMA
Data comm. Research Company proposed the simplest way to
implement MIMO is by sharing frequency using OFDM, that
together significantly can increase performance by extending
range, boosting speed and Improving reliability. OFDMA can also
be described as a combination of frequency domain and time
domain multiple access, where the resources are partitioned
in the time-frequency space, and slots are assigned along the
OFDM symbol index as well as OFDM sub-carrier index. OFDMA
is considered as highly suitable for broadband wireless networks,
due to advantages including scalability and MIMO-friendliness,
and ability to take advantage of channel frequency selectivity.
Together with MIMO, OFDMA is another
component of 4G that as the alternative to CDMA, promises high
data capacity and spectral efficiency.
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 OFDMA
Some of the major advantages are its flexibility of deployment across various
frequency bands with little needed modification to the air interface. Averaging
interferences from neighboring cells, by using different basic carrier permutations
between users in different cells. Interferences within the cell are averaged by using
allocation with cyclic permutations. Enables Single Frequency Network coverage,
where coverage problem exists and gives excellent coverage. Offers Frequency
diversity by spreading the carriers all over the used spectrum. Allows per
channel or per sub channel power control.

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 SERVICES PROVIDED BY 4G
4G will likely become a unification of different wireless networks, including
wireless LAN technologies public cellular networks (2.5G, 3G), and even personal
area networks. Under this umbrella, 4G needs to support a wide range of mobile
devices that can roam across different types of networks. These devices would
have to support Different networks, meaning that one device would have to have
the capability of working on different networks. One solution to this “multi-
network functional device” is a software defined radio. QoS assurance is important
for real time traffics like Voice over IP (VoIP), online gaming, IP TV and video
streaming etc. QoS enables network administrators to avoid network congestion
and manage the network resources efficiently. The goal of the 4G is to provide the
users the facility of Always Best Connected (ABC concept). Fourth generation of
networks is a combination of different networks. It gives a platform for various
technologies to be accessed. To provide QoS in 4G is not simple and easy job as
one has to deal with different parameters in different technologies. Like if a user is
moving and changing his coverage network, so to provide service under QoS
framework is challenging. While a mobile user is moving from one network to
another network his communication session needs to be maintained seamlessly
irrelevant of the coverage network. Similar is the case with video conferencing and
video streaming, the users like to receive the services seamlessly.
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 SERVICES PROVIDED BY 4G
There are some protocols designed to maintain the seamless communication of the users
while moving or in other words to minimize the latency and packet loss of the ongoing
communication session. The mobility protocols are Mobile IPv6, Hierarchical MIPv6, Fast
MIPv6 and some more (details of all these protocols are given in chapter Handovers). These
protocols can help in improving the mobility management of mobile users. In order to
provide QoS to the mobile users we propose a combination of mobility protocol Seamless
Mobile IPv6 (SMIPv6) and Session Imitation Protocol (SIP). There are two types of losses
when a mobile user switches network, one is called segment packet loss and the other is
called edge packet loss. Segment packet loss is because of the undeterministic nature of the
handoff while the edge packet loss is between the Mobility Anchor Point (MAP) and the MN.
To minimize these losses different approaches are used, to minimize edge packet loss the MN
is moved as close to the MAP as possible, while for the segmented packet loss two
approaches are used one is synchronized packet simulcast (SPS) and hybrid simulcast
mechanism are used. In SPS the packets are sent to both the current network as well the
potential network the MN is approaching [14]. While hybrid simulcast mean that the mobile
node informs the network about the handoff to be taken into effect but it is decided by the
network to which AR the MN shall attach. This way the packet loss is minimized (the detailed
mechanism is given in chapter of handover). Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is used to
manage mobility of different entities such as session, terminal, service and personal mobility.
It facilitates mobility and maintains the real time multimedia sessions. SIP is an application
layer protocol therefore it can work both in IPv4 and IPv6. SIP work along with other
protocols Such as Real Time Transport Protocol (RTP). 86
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Introduction to Spread Spectrum Systems

93
Introduction to Spread Spectrum Systems
• Spread spectrum systems is a class of wireless digital
communication systems that offer three main advantages:
1) Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with
many types of conventional transmissions with minimal
interference.
i.e: The spread-spectrum signals add minimal noise to the narrow-
band frequency communications. As a result, bandwidth can be
utilized more efficiently.
2) Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. An interception
receiver would only be able to intercept the transmission if the
pseudorandom sequence was known.
3) Spread-spectrum signals are resistant to narrowband interference.
i.e: The process of re-collecting a spread signal spreads out the
interfering signal
94
Types of Spread Spectrum Systems

• Direct Sequence
• Frequency Hopping
• Hybrid DS/FH system

95
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System with BPSK Modulation

• Direct sequence spread spectrum system (DSSSS), achieves

bandwidth spreading through the use of a high rate symbol
sequence (termed a chip sequence) that directly multiplies the
information symbol stream.
• Since the chip sequence
has a rate much higher
than the data rate, the
bandwidth is increased.
• The simplest form of
DSSSS uses binary
phase shift keying
(BPSK) modulation and Transmitter
is illustrated in the
Figure. 96
Data and Chip sequences

97
The transmitted signal can be represented by:

98
Definitions
baseband

99
Power Spectral Density

100
Power Spectral Density

101
Receiver Block Diagram of DSSSS with BPSK Modulation

Receiver

102
Receiver Analysis

103
Receiver analysis (Cont.)

104
105
106
UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

• The research activity on UMTS started in Europe at the

beginning of the 1990s.
• The third-generation mobile communication systems,
called International Mobile Telecommunications-2000
(IMT-2000) or Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) in Europe, are designed to support
wideband services with data rates up to 2Mbit/s.
• This system was developed from GSM
• Keep the core network more-or-less intact
• Change the air interface to use CDMA

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