CSE 321 Discrete Structures

Winter 2008
Lecture 1
Propositional Logic
 About the course
• From the CSE catalog:
– CSE 321 Discrete Structures (4)
Fundamentals of set theory, graph theory,
enumeration, and algebraic structures, with
applications in computing. Prerequisite: CSE
143; either MATH 126, MATH 129, or MATH
136.
• What I think the course is about:
– Foundational structures for the practice of
computer science and engineering
 Why this material is important
• Language and formalism for expressing
ideas in computing
• Fundamental tasks in computing
– Translating imprecise specification into a
working system
– Getting the details right
 Topic List
• Logic/boolean algebra: hardware design,
testing, artificial intelligence, software
engineering
• Mathematical reasoning/induction: algorithm
design, programming languages
• Number theory/probability: cryptography,
security, algorithm design, machine learning
• Relations/relational algebra: databases
• Graph theory: networking, social networks,
optimization
 Administration
• Instructor • Homework
– Richard Anderson – Due Wednesdays (starting
• Teaching Assistant Jan 16)
– Natalie Linnell • Exams
• Quiz section – Midterms, Feb 8
– Thursday, 12:30 – 1:20, or – Final, March 17, 2:30-4:20
1:30 – 2:20 pm
– CSE 305 • All course information
• Recorded Lectures posted on the web
– Available on line • Sign up for the course
• Text: Rosen, Discrete mailing list
Mathematics
– 6th Edition preferred
– 5th Edition okay
Propositional Logic
 Propositions
• A statement that has a truth value
• Which of the following are propositions?
– The Washington State flag is red
– It snowed in Whistler, BC on January 4, 2008.
– Hillary Clinton won the democratic caucus in Iowa
– Space aliens landed in Roswell, New Mexico
– Ron Paul would be a great president
– Turn your homework in on Wednesday
– Why are we taking this class?
– If n is an integer greater than two, then the equation an + bn = cn has no
solutions in non-zero integers a, b, and c.
– Every even integer greater than two can be written as the sum of two
primes
– This statement is false
– Propositional variables: p, q, r, s, . . .
– Truth values: T for true, F for false
 Compound Propositions
• Negation (not) p
• Conjunction (and) pq
• Disjunction (or) pq
• Exclusive or pq
• Implication pq
• Biconditional pq
 Truth Tables
p p p q pq

p q pq p q pq
 Understanding complex
propositions
• Either Harry finds the locket and Ron
breaks his wand or Fred will not open a
joke shop
 Understanding complex
propositions with a truth table

h r f hr f (h  r)   f
 Aside: Number of binary
operators
• How many different binary operators are
there on atomic propositions?
 p q pq
pq
• Implication
– p implies q
– whenever p is true q must be true
– if p then q
– q if p
– p is sufficient for q
– p only if q
If pigs can whistle then horses
can fly
 Converse, Contrapositive,
Inverse
• Implication: p  q
• Converse: q  p
• Contrapositive:  q   p
• Inverse:  p   q

• Are these the same?

 Biconditional p  q
• p iff q
• p is equivalent to q
• p implies q and q implies p

p q pq
 English and Logic
• You cannot ride the roller coaster if you
are under 4 feet tall unless you are older
than 16 years old
– q: you can ride the roller coaster
– r: you are under 4 feet tall
– s: you are older than 16
 Logical equivalence
• Terminology: A compound proposition is a
– Tautology if it is always true
– Contradiction if it is always false
– Contingency if it can be either true or false

pp

(p  p)  p

ppqq

(p  q)  p

(p  q)  (p   q)  ( p  q)  ( p   q)
 Logical Equivalence
• p and q are Logically Equivalent if p q is
a tautology.
• The notation p  q denotes p and q are
logically equivalent
• Example: (p q)  ( p  q)
p q pq p pq (p q)  ( p  q)
 Computing equivalence
• Describe an algorithm for computing if two
logical expressions are equivalent
• What is the run time of the algorithm?
 Understanding connectives
• Reflect basic rules of reasoning and logic
• Allow manipulation of logical formulas
– Simplification
– Testing for equivalence
• Applications
– Query optimization
– Search optimization and caching
– Artificial Intelligence
– Program verification
Properties of logical connectives
• Identity
• Domination
• Idempotent
• Commutative
• Associative
• Distributive
• Absorption
• Negation
 De Morgan’s Laws
•  (p  q)   p   q
•  (p  q)   p   q

• What are the negations of:

– Casey has a laptop and Jena has an iPod

– Clinton will win Iowa or New Hampshire

 Equivalences relating to
implication
• pqpq
• pqqp
• pqpq
• p  q   (p   q)
• p  q  (p q)  (q  p)
• pqpq
• p  q  (p  q)  ( p   q)
•  (p  q)  p   q
 Logical Proofs
• To show P is equivalent to Q
– Apply a series of logical equivalences to
subexpressions to convert P to Q
• To show P is a tautology
– Apply a series of logical equivalences to
subexpressions to convert P to T
Why bother with logical proofs
when we have truth tables?
Show (p  q)  (p  q) is a
tautology
 Show (p  q)  r and
p  (q  r) are not equivalent
 Predicate Calculus
• Predicate or Propositional Function
– A function that returns a truth value
• “x is a cat”
• “x is prime”
• “student x has taken course y”
• “x > y”
• “x + y = z”
 Quantifiers
•  x P(x) : P(x) is true for every x in the
domain
•  x P(x) : There is an x in the domain for
which P(x) is true
 Statements with quantifiers
Domain:
Positive Integers
•  x Even(x)
Even(x)
Odd(x)
•  x Odd(x) Prime(x)
Greater(x,y)
Equal(x,y)
•  x (Even(x)  Odd(x))

•  x (Even(x)  Odd(x))

•  x Greater(x+1, x)

•  x (Even(x)  Prime(x))
 Statements with quantifiers
•  x  y Greater (y, x)
For every number there is some number that is greater than it

•  y  x Greater (y, x)

•  x  y (Greater(y, x)  Prime(y))

•  x (Prime(x)  (Equal(x, 2)  Odd(x))

•  x  y(Equal(x, y + 2)  Prime(x)  Prime(y))

Domain: Greater(a, b)  “a > b”
Positive Integers
 Statements with quantifiers
Domain: Even(x)
Positive Integers Odd(x)
• “There is an odd prime” Prime(x)
Greater(x,y)
Equal(x,y)
• “If x is greater than two, x is not an even prime”

• xyz ((Equal(z, x+y)  Odd(x)  Odd(y)) Even(z))

• “There exists an odd integer that is the sum of two

primes”
 Goldbach’s Conjecture
• Every even integer greater than two can
be expressed as the sum of two primes

Even(x)
Odd(x)
Prime(x)
Greater(x,y)
Equal(x,y)

Domain:
Positive Integers
 Systems vulnerability
Reasoning about machine status
• Specify systems state • Predicates
and policy with logic
– Formal domain – RunsOS(M, O)
• reasoning about security – Vulnerable(M)
• automatic
implementation of – OSVersion(M, Ve)
policies
– LaterVersion(Ve, Ve)
• Domains
– Machines in the – Unpatched(M)
organization
– Operating Systems
– Versions
– Vulnerabilities
– Security warnings
System vulnerability statements
• Unpatched machines are vulnerable

• There is an unpatched Linux machine

• All Windows machines have versions later

than SP1
 Prolog
• Logic programming language
• Facts and Rules
RunsOS(SlipperPC, Windows) Later(x, y) :-
RunsOS(SlipperTablet, Windows) Later(x, z), Later(z, y)
RunsOS(CarmelLaptop, Linux)
NotLater(x, y) :- Later(y, x)
OSVersion(SlipperPC, SP2) NotLater(x, y) :-
OSVersion(SlipperTablet, SP1) SameVersion(x, y)
OSVersion(CarmelLaptop, Ver3)
MachineVulnerable(m) :-
LaterVersion(SP2, SP1) OSVersion(m, v),
LaterVersion(Ver3, Ver2) VersionVulnerable(v)
LaterVersion(Ver2, Ver1) VersionVulnerable(v) :-
CriticalVulnerability(x),
Version(x, n),
NotLater(v, n)
 Nested Quantifiers
• Iteration over multiple variables
• Nested loops
• Details
– Use distinct variables
•  x( y(P(x,y)   x Q(y, x)))
– Variable name doesn’t matter
•  x  y P(x, y)   a  b P(a, b)
– Positions of quantifiers can change (but order is
important)
•  x (Q(x)   y P(x, y))   x  y (Q(x)  P(x, y))
Quantification with two variables
Expression When true When false

 x  y P(x,y)

 x  y P(x,y)

 x  y P(x, y)

 y  x P(x, y)