Chapter 1: The Big Picture

The Layers of a Computing System

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History of Computer Science
The Abacus
Originally developed by the Babylonians around
2400 BC, this arithmetic calculating tool was
also used by ancient Egyptians, Greeks,
Romans, Indians, and Chinese.

The Algorithm
In the year 825, the Persian mathematician
Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī developed
the concept of performing a series of steps in
order to accomplish a task, such as the
systematic application of arithmetic to algebra.

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History of Computer Science
The Analytical Engine
Designed by British mathematician
Charles Babbage in the mid-19th
century, this steam-powered
mechanical device (never successfully
built) had the functionality of today’s
modern computers.

Binary Logic
Also in the mid-1800’s, British
mathematician George Boole
developed a complete algebraic
system that allowed computational
processes to be mathematically
modeled with zeros and ones
(representing true/false, on/off, etc.).
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History of Computer Science
Computability
In the early 20th century, American mathematician
Alonzo Church and British mathematician Alan Turing
independently developed the thesis that a
mathematical method is effective if it could be set out
as a list of instructions able to be followed by a human
clerk (a “computer”) with paper and pencil, for as long
as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight.

Turing Machine
In 1936, Turing developed a mathematical
model for an extremely basic abstract
symbol-manipulating device which, despite
its simplicity, could be adapted to simulate
the logic of any computer that could
possibly be constructed.

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History of Computer Science
Digital Circuit Design
In 1937, Claude Shannon, an American electrical engineer,
recognized that Boolean algebra could be used to arrange
electromechanical relays, which were then used in telephone
routing switches, to solve logic problems, the basic concept
underlying all electronic digital computers.

Cybernetics
During World War II, American
mathematician Norbert Wiener
experimented with anti-aircraft
systems that automatically
interpreted radar images to
detect enemy planes. This
approach of developing
artificial systems by examining
real systems became known as
cybernetics. Chapter 1
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History of Computer Science
Transistor
The fundamental building block of the circuitry in modern electronic
devices was developed in the early 1950s. Because of its fast response
and accuracy, the transistor is used in a wide variety of digital and analog
functions, including switching, amplification, voltage regulation, and
signal modulation.

Programming Languages
In 1957, IBM released the Fortran programming language (the IBM
Mathematical Formula Translating System), designed to facilitate
numerical computation and scientific computing.
In 1958, a committee of European and American scientists developed
ALGOL, the Algorithmic Language, which pioneered the language
design features that characterize most modern languages.
In 1959, under the supervision of the U.S. Department of Defense, a
consortium of technology companies (IBM, RCA, Sylvania, Honeywell,
Burroughs, and Sperry-Rand) developed COBOL, the Common
Business-Oriented Language, to help develop business, financial, and
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History of Computer Science
Operating Systems
In 1964, IBM’s System 360 mainframe computers utilized a
single operating system (rather than using separate ad hoc
systems for each machine) to schedule and manage the
execution of different jobs on the computer.

Mouse
In 1967, Stanford’s Douglas
Engelbart employed a
wooden case and two metal
wheels to invent his “X-Y
Position Indicator for a
Display System”.

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History of Computer Science
Relational Databases
In 1969, IBM’s Edgar Codd developed a table-based model for organizing
data in large systems so it could be easily accessed.

Computational Complexity
In 1971, American computer scientist Stephen Cook pioneered research
into NP-completeness, the notion that some problems may not be
solvable on a computer in a “reasonable” amount of time.

Supercomputers
In 1976, Seymour Cray developed the first computer to utilize
multiple processors in order to vastly accelerate the computation
of extremely complex scientific calculations.

Personal Computers
In 1976, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak formed Apple
Computer, Inc., facilitating the capability of purchasing a
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History of Computer Science

Internet
In 1969, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) established
ARPANET as a computer communication network that did not require dedicated lines
between every pair of communicating terminals.
By 1977, ARPANET had grown from its initial four nodes in California and Utah to over
100 nodes nationwide.
In 1988, the National Science Foundation established five supercomputer centers and
connected them via ARPANET in order to provide supercomputer access to academic
researchers nationwide.
By 1995, private sector entities had begun to find it profitable to build and expand the
Internet’s infrastructure, so NSFNET was retired and the Internet backbone was
officially privatized.

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History of Computer Science

Microsoft
In 1975, Bill Gates and Paul Allen founded the software company that would ultimately
achieve numerous milestones in the history of computer science:
•1981: Contracted with IBM to produce DOS (Disk Operating System) for use in IBM’s
new line of personal computers.
•1985: Introduced Microsoft Windows, providing PC users with a graphical user
interface, which promoted ease of use in PCs. (Resulted in “look-and-feel” lawsuit
from Apple.)
•1989: Released Microsoft Office, a suite of office productivity applications, including
Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel. (Accused of unfairly exploiting its knowledge of
underlying operating systems by office suite competitors.)
•1995: Entered Web browser market with Internet Explorer. (Criticized for security
flaws and lack of compliance with many Web standards.)
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