PHYSICAL

PROPERTIES
OF SOIL
 INTRODUCTION

Terms
definitions
Equations (relationships)

For

Physical and index properties of soil

 Fundamental physical properties
 Colour
Soil structure
 Particle size and shape
Specific gravity
 Unit weight
Porosity
 Void ratio
Soil phases
 Moisture content
consistency
 1-Colour

• Significance
Identification Purposes

Colour Depends upon

 Type of soil mineral

 Organic content
 Amount of coloring oxides
 Degree of oxidation
 2-SOIL STRUCTURE

Arrangement or grouping w.r.t size and shape in various patterns

of structural framework
 CAUSES
process of sedimentation or rock weathering.

• Terzaghi grouping
1. Granular or Single-grained structure
2. Flocculent Structure
3. Dispersed structure
Granular or single-grained structure

Cohesion-less soil (coarse-grained soils and silts> .01mm) tend to form a

single-grained structure which may be loose or dense
 Flocculent Structure:

 The clay minerals are extremely flaky in shape and have a

large surface area-to-mass ratio.
 Flocculated structure is developed when the edge of one clay
particle is attracted to the flat face of another
 Dispersed Structure:

 Develops when the edges and faces of the clay particles have
similar electrical charge

 also develops as a result of remolding by the transportation

process (man-made earth fills )
 3-Particle Shape and Size

Different shapes

Sub-Angular Angular Flaky

Sub-Rounded

Rounded
Elongated
The flaky & elongated particles bridge over open spaces, which
can resist overburden pressure

Elongated particles bridging the gap

 Size
 Clay
 Silt
 Sand
a. fine sand
b. medium sand
c. coarse sand
 Gravels
 Cobbles or Boulders
 Nomenclature of material (soil type) and range of sizes

Nomenclature Range of Sizes

(Soil Type)
ASTM AASHTO
 
Gravel 75 mm to 4.75 mm
Larger than 2 mm
(3in Sieve to No. 4 sieve)
 
Coarse Sand 4.75 mm to 2 mm 2mm to 0.425 mm
(No. 4 to No. 10 sieve)
 
Medium Sand 2 mm to 0.425 mm -------------------------
(No. 10 to No. 40 sieve)
 
Find Sand 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm
(No. 40 to No. 200 sieve)
 
Silt 0.075 mm to 0.005 mm 0.075 mm to .002 mm
(No. 200 to .005 mm)
Clay Smaller than 0.005 mm Smaller than 0.002 mm
Colloids Smaller than 0.001 mm Smaller than 0.001 mm
 4-Specific Gravity
 The ratio of the unit weight of a substance, to the unit
weight of water at 4oC
 How many times a substance (or material) is heavier than
water

s = unit weight of the soil solids (no pores) s = Ws/Vs

Ws is the weight of soil solids, which is equal to the dry

weight.
Vs is the volume of soil solids (no pores).
Average values of Gs for soil solids range from 2.50 to 2.70

Bulk Specific Gravity or Mass Specific Gravity = G = b / w Where

b = bulk density of soil.
 Significance of specific gravity

Used for determination and calculation of many

other soil properties ,as

 Particle size analysis by hydrometer test

 Porosity and void ratio
 Unit weight
 Critical hydraulic gradient
 Degree of saturation or zero air void
Specific Gravity of some Minerals and Soil types

Minerals Specific Soil-type Specific

Gravity Gravity
Dolomite 2.8-2.9 Bentonite clay 2.13-2.18

Feldspar 2.5-2.6 Chalk 2.63-2.73

Gypsum 2.2-2.4 Lime 2.7

Illite 2.60 Clay 2.45-2.90

Quartz 2.60-2.65 Humus 1.37

Talc 2.7-2.8 Loess 2.65-2.75

Kaolinite 2.6-2.63 Peat 1.26-1.8

Magnetite 5.17-5.18 Silt 2.68-2.72

Calcite 2.8-2.9 Quartzsand 2.60-2.65

 5-Soil Phases
 Any homogeneous part of a soil mass different from other
parts in the mass and clearly separated from them is called a
phase.

 Fundamental phases

1. Solid phase,
2. Liquid phase
3. Gaseous or vapour phase.
4. Ice phase. (in cold regions)
Schematic diagram indicating different soil phases
 6-Porosity

 The ratio of volume of all the voids “Vv” to the total

volume of the soil mass “V” is known as the porosity

Porosity falls in the range of

0 n  100

Where V = Vs + Vv
V = Total volume of soil mass
Vs = Volume of solid particles of soil
Vv = Volume of voids, which may be filled with air
or water or both
 Relationships
From Basic Formulae
Vv V  V s Vs
n  n  1
V V V
s
The specific gravity, G
w
Ws Ws
G while  s 
Vs  w Vs

Ws
Vs  while Ws  dry weight of soil
G w

Ws
n  1
G wV
 7-Void Ratio

• The ratio of volume of voids present in a soil

mass to the volume of solid particles.
• It is denoted by “e”.
volume of voids in soil Vv
e 
volume of solids in soil Vs

The void ratio is expressed as a number and the limiting

values can be within the range.
0 e  
 Relationship with other soil properties

Vv V  V s V VG w Ws
e   1  e  1 while Vs 
Vs Vs Vs Ws Gs  w

1 e 
V  1 Vs V  Vv
 
Vs 1 e V V
1 V 1
1 v 1 n  n 1
1 e V 1 e

1 e 1 e n
n   e
1 e 1 e 1 n
 Significance of Void Ratio

• void ratio is extensively used in calculating the following important

soil parameters

(es  G )
i  unit weight b  w
1 e
(e  G )  w
 sat 
1 e
G w
d 
1 e
(G  1)  w
 sub 
1 e
 G 1
ii  Critical hydraulic gradient, ic 
1 e
emax  e
iii  Re lative density, D 
emax  emin

e1  e2
iv  Modulus of compressibility , mv 
( p 2  p1 ) (1  e1 )

G w
v  Theoratical maximum dry density ,  d max 
1 e

e
vi  Final settlement,  H  ( )H
1  e1
 8-Moisture Content
• The amount of water present in the voids of a soil in its
natural state
weight of water
m  100
weight of dry soil

The range of water content is 0  m  

 It is not unusual for some soils (marine or organic lake soil) to have
moisture content up to 300-400 percent.

 The common range of moisture content for most soil is 20-40 percent.

 Oven dried soil has zero percent moisture and the soils which appear dry
(i.e., air dried soil) often have 2 to 4 percent moisture content.
 Different forms of moisture

 The moisture/water in the voids of a soil mass can occur in a

variety of forms. Depending upon the form of occurrence
they are given different names e.g.,

 Hygroscopic Moisture
 Chemically Bound Moisture
 Capillary Moisture
 Film Moisture
 Hygroscopic Moisture

 Also known as adsorbed moisture, contact moisture or

surface bound moisture.
 This form of soil moisture exists as a very thin film of
moisture surrounding the surfaces of individual soil particles
and is held by the forces of adhesion.
 The approximate values of hygroscopic moisture for various
soils are as under
1- Sand 1-2 percent
2- Silt 7-9 percent
3- Clay 17-20 percent
 Chemically Bound Moisture

 Moisture contained chemically within the mineral

particles and can be removed only by chemical
processes of the substance when the crystalline
structure of the mineral breaks

 Chemically bound moisture is not important for

common soil engineering problems and therefore is
not determined.
 Capillary Moisture

 The moisture which in held within the voids of

capillary size. The capillary moisture is
continuously connected to the groundwater
table

 Capillary water can be removed from the soil

by drainage,
 Film Moisture

 The moisture film attached to the soil particles, above

the layer of hygroscopic moisture film, is known is
film moisture

 It is held by the molecular forces and is not affected

by gravity
 9-Degree of Saturation
 The condition when voids are partially filled with water is
expressed by the degree of saturation or relative moisture
content. It is the ratio of actual volume of water in voids
“Vw” to the total volume of voids “Vv”.

Vw Ww m
S   
Vv Wv msat

Ww – is the weight of water actually present in the voids.

Wv – is wt of water that can fill all the voids.
m – actual moisture content.
msat – moisture content when all voids are totally filled with water.

The range of “S” 0  S  100

 10-Air Void Ratio or Air Content
• The ratio of the volume of air present in the voids to
the total volume of a soil mass.

V a Vv  V w
Av or A  
V Vv  V s
Since; V v = V a + Vw

Air content fall within the range of

0  A  100  percent.
 Vv  SVv
A while Vw  SVv
Vv
Vs (1  )
Vs
Vv (1  S )
A
Vs (1  e)

e (1  s )
A
1 e
e
A  n (1  S ) while n 
1 e
 11-Atterberg or Consistency Limits

The consistency of a soil means its physical

state with respect to the moisture content
present that time.

consistency states
1- Solid state
2- Semi solid state
3- Plastic state
4- Liquid state.
 Boundaries of the above four states

 Shrinkage Limit: It is the moisture content at which

a soil changes from solid state to semi-solid state.
 Plastic Limit: It is the moisture content at which a
soil changes from semi-solid state to plastic state.
 Liquid Limit: It is the moisture content at which a
soil changes from plastic state to liquid state.
 Shrinkage Limit

It is that moisture content at which a reduction in

moisture will not cause a decrease in the total
volume of soil mass, but an increase in moisture
will result in an increase in volume of soil mass.

At Shrinkage Limit The Degree Of Saturation

is 100 Percent.
Relationship between volume and moisture content
Concept of surface tension forces and induced compressive stresses (a)
Particle separated due to thick moisture film
(b) Meniscus contracting due to drying process (c) Meniscus tending to
tear off (d) Meniscus fully torn off allowing air entry
The soils which show higher shrinkage upon drying also swell more upon
wetting and are known as expansive soils. Expansive soils are very dense
and hard in dry state due to very high shrinkage stresses

Shrinkage cracks at Rawal lake which dried due to drought

 Relationship between Atterberg limits and
volume change

Plasticity index (%)

Volume change Shrinkage
potential Arid area Humid area limit (%)

Little 0-15 0-30 >12

Moderate 15-30 30-50 10-12

High >30 >50 <10

 Determination Shrinkage Limit
 Take paste of saturated soil (passing no.40 sieve) in the shrinkage
mould.

 OBSERVATIONS
Initial weight of saturated sample (paste) = Wi

Initial volume of saturated sample = Volume of mould = Vi

Final volume of sample after drying = Vf or Vd

Dry weight of sample = Wd
Initial (Total) weight of water in the sample = Wi – Wd

Weight of water lost due to drying of the original sample up to the

shrinkage limit = (Vi – Vf) w
 CALULATIONS

Weight water at shrinkage limit = (Wi – Wd) – [(Vi – Vf) w ]

Moisture content at shrinkage limit =

Alternate Method for determination of Shrinkage Limit

Volume of soil in dry state (Vd) = Volume in saturated state at shrinkage

limit

Volume of void in dry state (Vv) = Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit
(saturated soil)

Volume of voids in dry state (Vv) = Vd - Vs

Wd
= Vd -
s
Hence,
Wd
Volume of water (Vw) at shrinkage limit =   Vd 
s
 Wd
Weight of water at shrinkage limit = (Vd  ) W
s

Moisture content at shrinkage limit =

Wd
(Vd  ) w
s
S.L. = Wd

V d  W Wd  W
S.L.= W  W 
d d s

W 1
S.L. =  
d G
 Plastic Limit

 The moisture content at which a soil can be rolled into

threads of 1/8 (3.2mm) diameter without cracking and
crumbling.

 Threads thinner than 1/8 (3.2 mm) diameter are possible, if

the moisture is higher than the plastic limit.

 And if the moisture is less than plastic limit the thread will
crumble before reaching the required diameter of 1/8 (3.2
mm).
 Liquid Limit

 that moisture content at which 25 blows of Cassagrande

apparatus closes a standard groove cut in the soil paste
along a distance of 12.7 mm (0.5 in).

 the moisture content which gives a penetration depth of

20mm of the standard cone (fall cone test) into the soil,
when the cone is released for 5 seconds.
12.7mm
 Plasticity Index

 Plasticity Index indicates the range of moisture

through which a cohesive soil behaves as a plastic
material

 It is the numerical difference between liquid and

plastic limits. It is expressed as

P.I = L.L. – P.L (%)

Atterberg defined the range of plasticity index as
under
 P.I. = 0
The soil is non-plastic and non-cohesive.
 P.I. < 7
The soil is low plastic and partly cohesive.
 P.I. 7 - 17
The soil is medium plastic and cohesive.
 P.I. > 17
The soil is highly plastic and very cohesive.
Change of liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits with plastic
properties (not to scale, just to show comparison).
 Liquidity Index

 The ratio of difference between the moisture

content and plasticity index to the plasticity
index
m  P.L m  P.L
L.I  
L.L  P.L P.I

L.I < 0, (i.e. negative value) the field moisture content is less than
the plastic limit, and hence the soil is in a semi-solid state.

When 0  L.I.  1, The soil is in a plastic state

When L.I. > 1, The soil is in a liquid state.
consistency of a soil at its natural moisture
content

 L.I < 0, the soil is in a semi-solid or solid state (hard)

 0.00 < L.I  0.25, the consistency is stiff or hard

 0.25 < L.I  0.50, the consistency is medium

 0.5 < L.I  0.75, the consistency is soft

 0.75 < L.I  1, the consistency is very soft

 L.I > 1, the soil is in a liquid state

 Flow Index
 The slope of the flow curve (graph between log N and
moisture content drawn for the determination of liquid limit)
is known as the flow index and is equal to

F.I =

F.I =

Steep curve means higher flow index

 Case-I: Two soils having the same values of plasticity index.

No. of blows are indicative of the resistance to deformation or shear strength. For
the same drop of moisture m, the No. of blows for flat curve increase very much,
indicating higher shear strength. Therefore, the soils with same plasticity index
may posses different shear strength.
Case-II: Two soils having the same value of liquid
limit
 Toughness Index:

Soils having same values of plasticity indices may

vary in toughness. This property of a soil is expressed by
the toughness Index
 12-Particle Size Distribution:

 The percentage of various particle sizes present in a

soil is known as particle size distribution or
gradation.
 Particle size analysis is made by sieving or by
sedimentation.

 Sieving method – when particle size  .074 mm

 Sedimentation method – when particle size < .074mm
The sieves normally required are as follows:

Column -1 Column -2
Standard Alternate
Designation Designation
(mm) (in)
(75) 3 in.
(37.5) 1 ½ in.
(19) ¾ in.
(9.5) 3/8 in.
(4.75) No. 4
(2.00) No. 10
(0.840) No. 20
(0.420) No. 40
(0.250) No. 60
(0.15) No. 100
(0.075) No. 200
Significance of Particle Size Distribution:

 Engineering classification of soils.

 Selection of the most suitable soil for construction of
roads, airfields, levees, dams and other embankments.
 To predict the seepage through soil (although
permeability tests are more generally used)
 To predict the susceptibility to frost action.
 Selection of most suitable filter material.
 The gradation curve
A gradation curve is drawn by plotting the
percentage finer (%age passing) as ordinate
against the sizes as abscissa

The gradation curves indicate the type of

soil, and provide very important information
related to the properties and behavior of soil
 The gradation curves have great importance in civil
engineering and are extensively used for the following
purposes.

 Determination of Effective Grain (Particle) Size.

 Determination of Uniformity co-efficient.
 Determination of co-efficient of Curvature.
 Determination of percentage of different soil types
in a soil sample e.g., sand, silt, clay.
 Determination of percentage larger or finer than a
given size.
 Classification of soil.
 Design of filters.
 Concrete mix design.
 Well-Graded Soil:

soil containing an assortment of particles with

a wide range of sizes.

well graded uniformly graded

Ideal packing, due to particles Loose packing, as smaller
ranging from large to small particles to fill voids are
sizes missing
 Uniformly-Graded Soil:
 A uniformly graded soil is defined as a soil containing particles
having a limited range of sizes (Almost the same sizes)

Poorly-Graded Soil:
 A poorly graded soil is defined as a soil containing
particles of varying sizes with intermediate particle sizes
missing.
Such soils give lower density and lower strength.

The gradation curve of a poorly graded soil show steps

indicating an excess of certain particle sizes, and a deficiency
of others
 Gradation Curves
(a) well graded soil (b) uniformly graded soil
(c) poorly graded soil.
 Coefficient of uniformity

When the value of Cu is less than 4, the soil is generally

considered as uniformly graded.

 A higher value of Cu represents a wide range of

particle sizes and the soil is termed as well graded.
 Co-efficient of curvature
or
Co-efficient of Concavity

It is also known as coefficient of gradation (Cg).

Cc = 1, represents that all the soil particles have the same size,
and the soil is uniformly graded.

Cc between 0.2 and 2.0 indicate well graded or poorly

graded soil.
 13-Relative Density (Dr)
or
Density Index (ID)
 The term relative density is used to express the state of compactness
of a granular soil.

 The following relationship between the void ratio values is termed as

the relative density
The range of values for Dr and the commonly
referred state of compaction
Commonly referred state of compaction
and relative densities for granular soil
__________________________________________________________
State of compaction: Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense

Relative density (%): 0-15 15-35 35-65 65-85 85-100.

SPT N-value: <4 4-10 10-30 30-50 > 50______

 QUIZ-1
Write the formulae for the following:
– e -n
– m - s

– G

Define the following:

– Liquid Limit
– Flow index
– Plastic Limit
– Coefficient of uniformity
– Toughness index

Check whether the following statement are correct or incorrect.

– m can be more than 100%
– e can be less than 0
– S can be more than 100%
– Liquid Limit is always more than plastic limit
– PI = 0 means the soil is non plastic
1. Write the formulae for the following:

Vv
a. e 
VS

b. n Vv

V

Ww
c. m 
Wd

Ws
d. s 
Vs

e. G s

w
2. Check whether the following statements are correct or incorrect.


m can be more than 100% Yes / No

e can be less than 0 Yes / No


S can be more than 100% Yes / No

Liquid Limit is always more than plastic limit Yes / No

PI = 0 means the soil is non plastic Yes / No
 QUIZ-1
Q-1: Name different state of compaction of Granular soil (5)
Q-2: Name different state of consistency of Cohesive soil (6)
Q-3: Write down the formula for Liquidity Index (4)
Q-4: Write down the merits of well graded soil (5)
Q-5: When P.I. = 4, the soil is said to be: (5)
a- high plastic b- medium plastic c- Low plastic d- Non plastic
Q-6: With the increase of moisture content plastic soil changes from: (5)
a- Hard to soft b- Soft to hard c- Loose to hard d- Hard to loose
Q-7: With the application of compaction granular soil changes from: (5)
a- stiff to soft b- Soft to dense c- Loose to dense d- Hard to dense
Q-8: Flocculent structure is possessed by: (5)
a- Granular soil b- Sand c- Non plastic soil d- Clay
Q-9: Flocculent structure is possessed by: (5)
a- Granular soil b- Sand c- Non plastic soil d- Clay
Q-10: Flocculent structure is possessed by: (5)
a- Granular soil b- Sand c- Non plastic soil d- Clay
Extra slides
soil separate fraction name size range
very coarse sand 2.0 to 1.0 mm;

coarse sand 1.0 to 0.5 mm;

medium sand 0.5 to 0.25 mm;

fine sand 0.25 to 0.10 mm;

very fine sand 0.10 to 0.05 mm;

silt 0.05 to 0.002 mm;

clay <0.002 mm.

 INTRODUCTION

 The infrastructure development depends upon

 Transportation Engineering
 Structural Engineering
 Geotechnical Engineering

The activities of almost all these fields of engineering are mainly

concerned with soil and its behavior.
 FORMATION OF SOIL

Disintegration And Decomposition of rocks

through the action of many

 natural
 physical
 mechanical
 chemical agents
 TYPES OF SOIL
• Geological Consideration:

1. Glacial soil:

2. Residual soil:
3. Alluvial soil:
4. Wind blown soil or Aeolian soil
4-a. Dune or Dune Sand:
4-b. Loess
5. Colluvial soil:
Sand dunes fill this view of the desert in Qatar.
 Engineering consideration

BASED UPON PARTICLE SIZE

 Clay
 Silt
 Sand
 Gravels
 Cobbles or Boulders
 Organic Matter
 Desert Bordering the Huang He
The Huang He (Yellow River) stretches across varied terrain in northern China.
West of Beijing the river picks up silt as it passes through a desert region, which
gives the water a yellowish color.
Gravel Factory, Rwanda
The cobbled Appian Way
Table: 1.1 Nomenclature of material (soil type) and range of sizes

Nomenclature Range of Sizes

(Soil Type)
ASTM AASHTO
 
Gravel 75 mm to 4.75 mm
Larger than 2 mm
(3in Sieve to No. 4 sieve)
 
Coarse Sand 4.75 mm to 2 mm 2mm to 0.425 mm
(No. 4 to No. 10 sieve)
 
Medium Sand 2 mm to 0.425 mm -------------------------
(No. 10 to No. 40 sieve)
 
Find Sand 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm
(No. 40 to No. 200 sieve)
 
Silt 0.075 mm to 0.005 mm 0.075 mm to .002 mm
(No. 200 to .005 mm)
Clay Smaller than 0.005 mm Smaller than 0.002 mm
Colloids Smaller than 0.001 mm Smaller than 0.001 mm
     
SOIL MECHANICS

DEFINITION

the branch of engineering science which enables an engineer

to know theoretically or experimentally the behaviour of soil
under the action of loads (static or dynamic), gravitational
forces, water and temperature.

it is the knowledge of engineering science, which deals with

properties, behaviour and performance of soil as a
construction material or foundation support

TERZAGI’S DEFINITION
Application of laws of hydraulics and mechanics to
engineering problems …..
Figure below, shows a soil mass subjected to the action of storm water. The
storm water moving down along the face of a slope without vegetation cover
carries the soil particles down the slope

Fig: 1.9 Soil subjected to action of water (Erosion).

Figure shows a soil mass subjected to the action of river water.

Soil under the action of water (Scouring)

Figures below show a soil mass subjected to frost action

Frost heave

Pavement

Ice
lenses
Original ground surface fed by
capillar
y water
Frozen soil from
water
table.
GWT

Fig: Soil subjected to low temperature (Frost action)

 Elevated ground surface due to frost heave

Depth of Maximum frost heave

frost
penetration Original ground surface

Frozen soil

Ice lenses

Unfrozen zone
Frost line

Fig: 1.11 Soil under the influence of temperature (Frost action)

 Retaining walls

• Purpose
to stabilize sloping soil mass

 Selection of Type of retaining wall depends on

 Project economics
 Height of cut or fill
 Availability of material
 Type of soil to be retained
etc..
 Figure below, shows a retaining wall along a highway in mountainous range

Fig: Crib type retaining wall along a highway in mountainous range

 Failure of Retaining walls

Factors of Failure (landslides)

 Improper design
 Reduction of shear strength
 Excessive pressure on the retaining wall
 Angle of plane failure
 Road Remnants

Colluviums (lean CLAY with gravel)

Retaining Wall

Diversion Bridge

Fig: Landslide causing failure of a gravity retaining wall at Kuldana-

Murree (August 2002)
 TUNNELS

• Purpose

to cut travel distance and ultimately to reduce

travel time
 
Highway passing through a tunnel
 General relationship among texture, bulk density and
porosity of soils
Textural Class Bulk Density (Mg/m³) Porosity (%)

Sand 1.55 42

Sandy loam 1.40 48

Fine sandy loam 1.30 51

Loam 1.20 55

Silt loam 1.15 56

Clay loam 1.10 59

Clay 1.05 60

Aggregated clay 1.00 62