Parallel database

1. Introduction
2. Architecture for Parallel databases.
3. Parallel query Evaluation
4. Parallelizing Individual operations.

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 Introduction
 What is a Centralized Database ?
-all the data is maintained at a single site and assumed that the processing of
individual transaction is essentially sequential.

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 PARALLEL DBMSs
WHY DO WE NEED THEM?

• More and More Data!

We have databases that hold a high amount of

data, in the order of 1012 bytes:

10,000,000,000,000 bytes!

• Faster and Faster Access!

We have data applications that need to process

data at very high speeds:

10,000s transactions per second!

SINGLE-PROCESSOR DBMS AREN’T UP TO THE JOB!

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 Why Parallel Access To Data?
At 10 MB/s 1,000 x parallel
1.2 days to scan 1.5 minute to scan.
Ba
nd
1 Terabyte wi 1 Terabyte

dt
h
10 MB/s
Parallelism:
divide a big problem
into many smaller ones
to be solved in parallel.
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 Parallel DB
 Parallel database system seeks to improve performance through
parallelization of various operations such as loading data ,building
indexes, and evaluating queries by using multiple CPUs and Disks in
Parallel.

 Motivation for Parallel DB

 Parallel machines are becoming quite common and affordable
 Prices of microprocessors, memory and disks have dropped sharply
 Databases are growing increasingly large
 large volumes of transaction data are collected and stored for later
analysis.
 multimedia objects like images are increasingly stored in databases

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 PARALLEL DBMSs
BENEFITS OF A PARALLEL DBMS

 Improves Response Time.

INTERQUERY PARALLELISM
It is possible to process a number of transactions in parallel with each other.

 Improves Throughput.

INTRAQUERY PARALLELISM
It is possible to process ‘sub-tasks’ of a transaction in parallel with each other.

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 PARALLEL DBMSs
HOW TO MEASURE THE BENEFITS

 Speed-Up
– Adding more resources results in proportionally less running time for a
fixed amount of data.
10 seconds to scan a DB of 10,000 records using 1 CPU
1 second to scan a DB of 10,000 records using 10 CPUs

 Scale-Up
 If resources are increased in proportion to an increase in data/problem
size, the overall time should remain constant

– 1 second to scan a DB of 1,000 records using 1 CPU

1 second to scan a DB of 10,000 records using 10 CPUs

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 Architectures for Parallel Databases
 The basic idea behind Parallel DB is to carry out evaluation steps in
parallel whenever is possible.

 There are many opportunities for parallelism in RDBMS.

 3 main architectures have been proposed for building parallel DBMSs.

1. Shared Memory
2. Shared Disk
3. Shared Nothing

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 Shared Memory
 Advantages:
1. It is closer to conventional machine
, Easy to.
2. OS services arprogram
3. overhead is lowe leveraged to
utilize the additional CPUs.
 Disadvantage:
1. It leads to bottleneck problem
2. Expensive to build
3. It is less sensitive to
partitioning

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 Shared Disk
 Advantages:
1. Almost same
 Disadvantages:
1. More interference
2. Increases N/W band width
3. Shared disk less sensitive to
partitioning

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 Shared Nothing
 Advantages:
1. It provides linear scale up
&linear speed up
2. Shared nothing benefits from
"good" partitioning
3. Cheap to build
 Disadvantage
1. Hard to program
2. Addition of new nodes
requires reorganizing

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 PARALLEL DBMSs
SPEED-UP

Number of transactions/second

Linear speed-up (ideal)

2000/Sec
1600/Sec
Sub-linear speed-up
1000/Sec

5 CPUs 10 CPUs 16 CPUs

12 1. Parallel DB /D.S.Jagli
Number of CPUs 09/01/20
 PARALLEL DBMSs
SCALE-UP

Number of transactions/second

1000/Sec Linear scale-up (ideal)

900/Sec Sub-linear scale-up

5 CPUs 10 CPUs
1 GB Database 2 GB Database

13 1. Parallel DB /D.S.Jagli
Number of CPUs, Database size 09/01/20
 PARALLEL QUERY EVALUATION

A relational query execution plan is graph/tree of

relational algebra operators (based on this
operators can execute in parallel)

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 Different Types of DBMS ||-ism
 Parallel evaluation of a relational query in DBMS With shared –nothing
architecture
1. Inter-query parallelism
 Multiple queries run on different sites
2. Intra-query parallelism
 Parallel execution of single query run on different sites.
a) Intra-operator parallelism
a) get all machines working together to compute a given operation (scan, sort, join).
b) Inter-operator parallelism
 each operator may run concurrently on a different site (exploits
pipelining).
 In order to evaluate different operators in parallel, we need to
evaluate each operator in query plan in Parallel.

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 Data Partitioning
 Types of Partitioning
1. Horizontal Partitioning: tuple of a relation are divided among
many disks such that each tuple resides on one disk.
It enables to exploit the I/O band width of disks by reading &
writing them in parallel.
Reduce the time required to retrieve relations from disk by
partitioning the relations on multiple disks.
1. Range Partitioning
2. Hash Partitioning
3. Round Robin Partitioning

2. Vertical Partitioning

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 1.Range Partitioning
 Tuples are sorted (conceptually), and n ranges are chosen for
the sort key values so that each range contains roughly the
same number of tuples;
 tuples in range i are assigned to processor i.
 Eg:
 sailor _id 1-10 assigned to disk 1
sailor _id 10-20 assigned to disk 2
sailor _id 20-30 assigned to disk 3

 range partitioning can lead to data skew; that is, partitions with widely
varying number of tuples across

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 2.Hash Partitioning
 A hash function is applied to selected fields of a tuple to determine its
processor.

 Hash partitioning has the additional virtue that it keeps data evenly
distributed even if the data grows and shrinks over time.

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 3.Round Robin Partitioning

 If there are n processors, the i th tuple is assigned to processor i mod n in

round-robin partitioning.

 Round-robin partitioning is suitable for efficiently evaluating queries that

access the entire relation.

 If only a subset of the tuples (e.g., those that satisfy the selection
condition age = 20) is required, hash partitioning and range partitioning
are better than round-robin partitioning

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Range Hash Round Robin

A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z A...E F...J K...N O...S T...Z

Good for equijoins, Good for equijoins, Good to spread load

exact-match queries, exact match queries
and range queries

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 Parallelizing Sequential Operator
Evaluation Code
1. An elegant software architecture for parallel DBMSs enables us to
readily parallelize existing code for sequentially evaluating a
relational operator.

2. The basic idea is to use parallel data streams.

3. Streams are merged as needed to provide the inputs for a relational

operator.

4. The output of an operator is split as needed to parallelize subsequent

processing.

5. A parallel evaluation plan consists of a dataflow network of

relational, merge, and split operators.
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 PARALLELIZING INDIVIDUAL
OPERATIONS
 How various operations can be implemented in parallel in a shared-
nothing architecture?

 Techniques
1. Bulk loading& scanning
2. Sorting
3. Joins

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 1.Bulk Loading and scanning
 scanning a relation: Pages can be read in parallel while scanning a
relation, and the retrieved tuples can then be merged, if the relation is
partitioned across several disks.

 bulk loading: if a relation has associated indexes, any sorting of data

entries required for building the indexes during bulk loading can also
be done in parallel.

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 2.Parallel Sorting :
 Parallel sorting steps:
1. First redistribute all tuples in the relation using range partitioning.
2. Each processor then sorts the tuples assigned to it
3. The entire sorted relation can be retrieved by visiting the processors in
an order corresponding to the ranges assigned to them.

 Problem: Data skew

 Solution: “sample” the data at the outset to determine good

range partition points.

A particularly important application of parallel sorting is sorting the data

entries in tree-structured indexes.
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 3.Parallel Join
1. The basic idea for joining A and B in parallel is to decompose the join
into a collection of k smaller joins by using partition.

2. By using the same partitioning function for both A and B, we ensure that
the union of the k smaller joins computes the join of A and B.

 Hash-Join
 Sort-merge-join

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 Sort-merge-join
 partition A and B by dividing the range of the join attribute into k disjoint
subranges and placing A and B tuples into partitions according to the
subrange to which their values belong.

 Each processor carry out a local join.

 In this case the number of partitions k is chosen to be equal to the number of

processors n .

 The result of the join of A and B, the output of the join process may be split
into several data streams.

The advantage that the output is available in sorted order

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 Dataflow Network of Operators for
Parallel Join

Good use of split/merge makes it easier to build parallel versions of sequential

join code
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