Scribd
Upload
4K views41 pages

Module 3 PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

The document discusses problem solving and reasoning in mathematics, outlining Polya's 4-step approach to problem solving which includes understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and reviewing the solution. It also discusses inductive and deductive reasoning as well as using pattern recognition to solve problems by observing repeated values or behaviors in numeric or geometric cases. The goal is to develop students' skills in effectively solving problems through appropriate use of knowledge, facts, data, and reasoning.

Uploaded by

hgfhfghfghg
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
4K views41 pages

Module 3 PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

The document discusses problem solving and reasoning in mathematics, outlining Polya's 4-step approach to problem solving which includes understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and reviewing the solution. It also discusses inductive and deductive reasoning as well as using pattern recognition to solve problems by observing repeated values or behaviors in numeric or geometric cases. The goal is to develop students' skills in effectively solving problems through appropriate use of knowledge, facts, data, and reasoning.

Uploaded by

hgfhfghfghg
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 41

Mathematics

in the Modern World


Module 3
Problem Solving and
Reasoning
Introduction
• Alfred A. Montapert : Expect problems and eat them for breakfast.
• Rene Descartes: Each problem that I solved became a rule, which
served afterwards to solve other problems

Problem solving involves reasoning and it does not mean you need
to produce immediate solutions. It entails appropriate use of
knowledge, facts, and data to effectively propose a solution. The ability
to create a well-thought-out solution within a reasonable time frame,
however, is a skill that can be well developed in the study of
mathematics.
Objectives
 This module discusses the fundamental principles of solving
problems like the inductive and deductive reasoning, along with
some specific processes that can be applied to certain types of
problems.
 It aims to develop students’ skills in pattern recognition to find the
solution and to answer various types of problems that pose
intellectual and recreational challenge.
 It emphasizes the use of the existing patterns that abound in nature
to formulate such solutions.
Section 3.1 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Problem solving entails inferring from previous


occurrences of similar circumstances with emphasis on
identifying patterns that can suggest possible solutions.
Inference may be obtained by using either the inductive
process or the deductive process.
Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning
General
Principles

Deductive Inductive

Specific
Cases
Deductive Approach Inductive Approach

Theory Theory

Hypothesis Hypothesis

Observation Pattern

Confirmation Observation
Examples
• Deductive
  Approach
The sum of two odd integers is an even number.
and are odd numbers.
So, is even.

• Inductive Approach
3 and 5 are odd and is even
7 and 11 are odd and 7 + 11 = 18 is even
Therefore, the sum of two odd numbers is even.
Example: Deductive Reasoning
Premise 1: In a right triangle, the two acute angles are complementary.

Premise 2: Triangle ABC has B = 90°.


Conclusion: Therefore, A + C = 90°.

In this example Premise 1 cites a known property of right triangle.


Premise 2 implies that the given triangle ABC is a right triangle.
The conclusion is now just a specific case of Premise 1.
Example: Inductive Reasoning
•Consider
  the following series of operations: Multiply your age by 8, add
6 to the result, then divide the sum by 2, and finally subtract 3 from the
quotient. Note that the series of operations simply corresponds to
getting 4 times your age.

Try verifying this: What is the final result of the operations if your age is
12 years? 35 years? Or any arbitrary age, say years?
Historical Example
One classic example of inductive inference is Galileo’s characterization
of the pendulums that led to the development of pendulum clocks.
Briefly put, he showed that the time it takes for a pendulum to take
one full swing (called period) is dependent on the length of the
pendulum. In particular, the period is the square root of the length. The
establishment of this property was not solely inductive. It took a while
for the deductive approach to be applied before the conclusion was
accepted as an absolute truth.
Remarks
• Inferences made by inductive process do not render absolute truth
(only conjecture).
• Conjectures can be proven as valid (or true) by deductive process.
• Conjectures can be proven as false by contradiction.
Example
Observe that: 2 + 4 = 6 and (2)(4) = 8
6 + 8 = 14 and (6)(8) = 48
12 + 10 = 22 and (12)(10) = 120
Conjecture: If the sum of two numbers is even, then their product is
also even.

Is the conjecture “True” or “False”?


Section 2.2 Problem-Solving Strategies
“A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of
discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be
modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your
inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may
experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.”
– George Polya
Polya’s 4-step Approach
▪ Understand the Problem This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is
often overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of the
problem.
o What is the unknown?
o What are the data?
o What is the condition?
o Is it possible to satisfy the condition?
o Is the condition sufficient to determine the unknown?
o Draw a figure and introduce suitable notation
o Separate the various parts of the condition. Can you write them down?
Polya’s 4-step Approach
▪ Devise a Plan Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques
when they attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently
used procedures.
o Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem
in a slightly different form?
o Do you know a related problem? Do you know a theorem that
could be useful?
oIf a related problem is available, could you use it? Could you use
its results? Could you use its method? Should you introduce some
auxiliary elements in order to make its use possible?
Polya’s 4-step Approach
▪ Carry Out the Plan Perform each step of the plan with care and
precision. Keep a record of every result that you obtain. If you get
affirmative results, just keep going; there is a next stage of the
process. If things do not turn out to be as what you expected, then
keep your alternatives open as you may need to revisit your plan.
▪ Review the Solution Finally, review your solution. Go back to the
original problem and check if the obtained solution is sufficient and
consistent with what is asked. Check the soundness of your
argument. Also, assess if your obtained solution still applies at a
larger scale.
Illustration
•During
  a family gathering last Christmas, Angel was able to collect 12
monetary bills consisting of P20 bills and P50 bills from her Titos and
Titas. She received a total of P390 from them. How many of each bill
did Angel receive?

Note: While this can be easily solved by algebraic method (that is,
introduce variables like and ), reasoning should be given more
emphasis at this stage.
Polya’s Way
• Understand the Problem Distribute 12 bills into two portions.
• Devise a Plan Perform trial and error. There are only 11 ways of
splitting 12 into two portions: 11 + 1, 10 + 2, 9 + 3, and so on. If
there are 11 P20 bills, then there must be one P50 bills, in which
case the total amount is 11(20) + 1(50) = 270 pesos. Reversing the
amounts, you have 11(50) + 1(20) = 570 pesos. Determine which
distribution of bills yields the amount P390.
Polya’s Way
• Carry out the plan

The answer is seven P20-bill and five P50-bill.


Polya’s Way
• Look Back The answer is reasonable as it generates the desired
amount of P390. To check if this is the only solution, complete the
table
Polya’s Way : Alternative – algebraic process
The usual algebraic process can be systematically aligned to Polya’s
process.
• Understand the Problem Distribute 12 bills into two portions.
• Devise a Plan
Let x be the number of P20 bills and y, the number of P50 bills. Since there are
12 paper bills in all, then
x + y = 12 (1)
The amount of P20 bills is 20x while the amount of the P50 bills is 50y, giving the
equation
20 x + 50y = 390 (2)
Solve the system of equations in two unknowns to find the answer.
Polya’s Way : Alternative – algebraic process
• Carry out the plan
Equation (1) yields the explicit form y = 12 – x.
Using this in equation (2):
20x + 50(12-x) = 390
20x + 600 – 50x = 390
-30x = -210
x=7
y = 12-7 = 5
As in the first solution, the answer is seven P20 bills and five P50 bills.
Polya’s Way : Alternative – algebraic process
• Look Back
Check the total amount: 7(20) + 5(50) = 140 + 250 = 390.
Section 1.3 Pattern Recognition in Problem-
Solving
One of the most effective ways to solve a problem is
taking few numeric or geometric cases and observing if
there are repeated values or if such values exhibit
certain behavior or pattern. Once the rule of the
pattern is captured, it would be easier to solve the
specified problem.
Example 1
In how many ways can you answer a 10-item True or False Test?
Solution:
Start with the simplest case: There is only one item, and it can be
answered either as “True” or “False”.
So, there are 2 ways to answer.
Example 1
In how many ways can you answer a 10-item True or False Test?
Solution:
What if there are two items? Below are the possibilities:

This yields 4 possible ways of answering the 2-item test.


Example 1
We can use a tree diagram to visualize the possibilities in this case:

Item 1 Item 2 Outcomes


True True,True
True

False True,False
Start

True False,True
False

False False,False
Example 1
For a 3-item test, we have the following combinations:

Can you figure out the outcomes if there are 4 items in the test?
Example 1
Summarizing, we can observe the first few results:

Can you figure out any pattern in the number of ways of answering the
test?
Example 1
It must be evident that the number of ways is always a power of 2:
Example 1
So, it appears that for n questions in the test, there are exactly 2n
ways of answering them. Specifically, if there are 10 questions, then
there must be 210 = 1024 ways.
Example 2
•  In a certain gathering, participants greet each other through
handshakes. Of course, a person cannot shake his own hands and each
person can only shake hands with another person once. How many
handshakes occur in a party of people?
Example 2: Solution
We start observing initial cases. For only two individuals, say P1 and P2,
there is only one handshake that takes place since P1 to P2 is the same
as P2 to P1. For three individuals (P1, P2, P3), the distinct handshakes
are: P1 to P2, P1 to P3, and P2 to P3 (for a total of three handshakes).
Example 2: Solution
For four individuals (P1, P2, P3, P4), you have the following distinct
handshakes: P1 to P2
P1 to P3
P1 to P4
P2 to P3
P2 to P4
P3 to P4
(for a total of six handshakes).
Example 2: Solution
Summarizing,
Example 2: Solution
There seems to be a pattern on the number of handshakes.
Example 2: Solution
By brute force, we verify if there really are 10 handshakes among 5
people (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5):
(1) P1 to P2 (2) P1 to P3
(3) P1 to P4 (4) P1 to P5
(5) P2 to P3 (6) P2 to P4
(7) P2 to P5 (8) P3 to P4
(9) P3 to P5 (10) P4 to P5
Note: A tree diagram may serve a better visualization of the
handshakings.
Example 2: Solution
•So,  as it appears, the number of handshakes is just incremented
successively by the natural numbers. This is evident because an
additional person must have a handshake with the original individuals.
We summarize this in the following table of values:
Example 2: Solution
•Conjecture:
  The total number of handshakes is

This follows from the fact that the nth person will have to shake hand
with the other n-1 people. The division by 2 serves to eliminate double
counting (e.g. P1 to P2 is the same as P2 to P1).
Example 2: Solution
•Algebraically,
  we can use the partial sums to prove our conjecture:

You might also like