CHAPTER 5:

A Critical Survey of the

different
normative ethical
theories
"There is always a
best way of doing”
everything
-Ralph W. Emerson
1 THE NORMS OF MORALITY ACCORDING TO THE
SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY AND TRADITIONAL ETHICS

Morality consists of the conformity or non-conformity of

the human conduct with norms. In the light of traditional
Ethics, these norms are called “dictates of reason”.
Morality, therefore, is defined as the quality of a thing
manifesting its conformity or non-conformity with its norms
or criteria.
1 THE NORMS OF MORALITY ACCORDING TO THE
SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY AND TRADITIONAL ETHICS

NORMS, ETHICAL
NORMS, ETHICAL
PRINCIPLES, RULES
PRINCIPLES, RULES
AMONG OTHERS
HUMAN AMONG OTHERS
HUMAN JUDGMENT
JUDGMENT
CONDUCT
CONDUCT CONFORMITY OR
NON CONFORMITY
MORAL OR IMMORAL

-EVALUATING THE HUMAN

CONDUCT-
 THE NORMS OF MORALITY
• CONSCIE
NCE
Traditional ethics considers conscience as the proximate norm of
morality. It is defined as the practical judgment of reason deciding
upon an individual act as good and to be followed or as evil and
therefore, to be avoided.
 Types of
Conscience
 1.
8 Types of
Conscience
ANTECEDENT
CONSCIENCE
2.2. is a judgment before an action is done.
3.
3. Its main functions are to command, to
4.4.
5.5. advice, to forbid, and to permit.
6.6.
7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
Conscience
2. CONSEQUENT
CONSCIENCE
3.
3. is a judgment after an action is done. Its
4.4. main functions are to command, to
5.5. advice, to forbid, and to permit.
6.6.
7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2. Conscience
3. TRUE
Is a conscience which judges things
truly as they are. Knowledge and the
CONSCIENCE sense of responsibility for one’s
4.4. actions help greatly in forming a
5.5. correct conscience.
6.6.
7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2.
3.3.
Conscience
Is also called false conscience. It
judges things in a distorted manner
4. ERRONEOUS
CONSCIENCE since it considers bad acts as good
and good acts as bad.
5.5.
6.6.
7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2.
3.3.
Conscience
It is a subjective certainty of the
legality of particular actions to be
4.4. done or to be omitted. This is the
5. CERTAIN
CONSCIENCE kind of conscience that moralist
recommend to be always followed by
6.6. man.
7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2.
3.3.
Conscience
Happens when a person is not certain
about a moral judgement. Moralist
4.4. recommend not to follow this kind of
5.5. conscience unless the person has
6. DOUBTFUL
CONSCIENCE resolved the doubt

7.7.
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2.
3.3.
Conscience
Is one which sees wrong where there
is non. It is a conscience which is
4.4.
5.5. extremely austere; it is always scared
6.6. to commit evil
7. SCRUPULOUS
CONSCIENCE
8.
 8 Types of
1.1.
2.2.
3.3.
Conscience
Is the opposite of scrupulous
conscience as it fails to see wrong
4.4.
5.5. where there is wrong. This
6.6. categorically needs a right education.
7.7.
8. LAX
CONSCIENCE
NATURAL
LAW
Traditional ethics considers this as remote norm of
morality. It reflects what the thing is in accordance with
its nature.
According to traditional ethics, everything has been
made with a specific nature and purpose.
NATURAL
LAW
"
Purpose is always ”
good
-St. Thomas Aquinas
eternaL
LAW
Traditional ethics considers divine law or eternal
law as the ultimate norm of morality

It is the plan of God in creating the universe and

assigning to each creature a specific nature.
eternaL
LAW For St. Thomas
Aquinas…
“the divine wisdom directing all actions and movements”

For St. Augustine…

“the divine reason or will of God commanding the natural
order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be
disturbed.”
BUSINESS
APPLICATIONS
A. Ideally , the three norms of morality according to traditional
ethics must be able to guide our business decision making
process. However, these three criteria are not widely accepted by
decision maker

B. Common sense directs that “dictates of reason” should be

enough to guide our evaluation between the actions that we
perform and the norms that determine what it acceptable and
what is not in our human behavior.
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
Immanuel Kant, (born April 22, 1724, Königsberg, Prussia [now Kaliningrad,
Russia]—died February 12, 1804, Königsberg), German philosopher whose
comprehensive and systematic work in epistemology (the theory of knowledge),
ethics, and aesthetics greatly influenced all subsequent philosophy, especially the
various schools of Kantianism and idealism.

Kant was one of the foremost thinkers of the Enlightenment and arguably one of the
greatest philosophers of all time. In him were subsumed new trends that had begun
with the rationalism (stressing reason) of René Descartes and the empiricism
(stressing experience) of Francis Bacon. He thus inaugurated a new era in the
development of philosophical thought.
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)

Kant’s moral Rationalism

For him, reason is
“the be all and end all”
of everything
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
For kant, morality is
2.2.IT
ITIS
IS
1.1.AAPRIORI
PRIORI UNIVERSAL
UNIVERSAL

3.3.MORAL
MORALLAWS
LAWS 4.4.IT IS
IT IS
ARE
AREIMMUTABLE
IMMUTABLE ABSOLUTE
ABSOLUTE
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)

As to the question,”
WHY MUST DO WE DO GOOD?”
Kant answer by saying,

“We must do good because we must.

It’s our duty to obey immediately without
questioning”
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)

KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE

Kant argues that since morality is a product of
reason, the obedience to this command is true and
binding because it is beyond experience. Since
morality for him is a priori, the command to live a
moral life by obeying the laws of reason is a must.
 2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
The first formulation
The first formulation
(THE FORMULA OF
(THE FORMULA OF
UNIVERSAL LAW OR THE
UNIVERSAL LAW OR THE The second formulation
PRINCIPLE OF The second formulation
PRINCIPLE OF Formula of Humanity:
UNIVERSALIZABILITY) Formula of Humanity:
UNIVERSALIZABILITY) “Act in such a way that you
“Act only in accordance with “Act in such a way that you
“Act only in accordance with always treat humanity, whether The third formulation
that maxim through which you always treat humanity, whether The third formulation
that maxim through which you in your own person or in the (THE FORMULA OF
can at the same time will that it in your own person or in the (THE FORMULA OF
can at the same time will that it person of any other, never AUTONOMY)
becomes a universal law” person of any other, never AUTONOMY)
becomes a universal law” simply as a means, but always at Is a synthesis of the
simply as a means, but always at Is a synthesis of the
the same time as an end.” previous two.
the same time as an end.” previous two.
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
CRITIQUE ON KANT’S ETHICAL
PHILOSOPHY
-Kant confuses what is merely indicative for what is
constitutive.
-According to Kant, nothing can be superior and inferior to
itself at the same time.
-Kant misses to reflect that human reason does not and
cannot make the moral law.
-Kant's claim that the sense of duty is the sole norm of
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
A. Kant introduces the importance of humanistic dimension into
business decisions
B. Kant stresses the importance of motives and of acting on
principles
C. Kant’s categorical imperative gives us firm rules to follow in
moral decision making, tes that do not depend on circumstances or
results and do not permit individua exception.
2 KANTIAN ETHICS
(IMMANUEL KANT 1724-1804)
BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
A. Kant introduces the importance of humanistic dimension into
business decisions
B. Kant stresses the importance of motives and of acting on
principles
C. Kant’s categorical imperative gives us firm rules to follow in
moral decision making, tes that do not depend on circumstances or
results and do not permit individua exception.
 3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, (May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an
Italian diplomat, politician, historian, philosopher, humanist, writer,
playwright and poet of the Renaissance period.He has often been called the
father of modern political science. For many years he was a senior official in
the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military
affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal
correspondence is renowned by Italian scholars. He was secretary to the
Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the
Medici were out of power. He wrote his most well-known work The Prince
(Il Principe) in 1513, having been exiled from city affairs
3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

NICCOLO
NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI
MACHIAVELLI

THE
THEPRINCE
PRINCE THE DISCOURSE
THE DISCOURSE
3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

 The Principle of Machiavelli gives an alternative

to come up with the basis for running a
government.
"The poor becomes poorer while the rich becomes
richer."
3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

MEANS
LEADER
LEADER MEANS END
END
DO
DO CREATION
CREATION
ABSOLUTE
ABSOLUTE ANYTHING
ANYTHING OF
OFAN
AN
MONARCH ILLEGAL
ILLEGALOR
OR
MONARCH IDEAL STATE
IDEAL STATE
MORAL
MORAL
3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

"Any man who tries to be good all the time is bound

to come to ruin among the great number who are not
good. Hence a prince who wants to keep his authority
must learn not to be good, use that knowledge, or
refrain from using it, as necessity requires."
 3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

Machiavelli also espouses violence in the process of creating a strong leader in the 16th century
Italy. In the book the Prince, Machiavelli also states

"You must know, then, that there are two methods of

fighting, the one by law, the other by force; the first
method is that of men, the second of beasts; but as the
first method is insufficient, one must have recourse to
the second."
 3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)
CRITIQUES ON MACHIAVELLI’S PRINCIPLE
1. The philosophy of Machiavelli gives an alternative to come up with a
basis for running a government.
Problem:
We are experiencing a serious financial crisis and our economy may collapse if the government would
not create means to collect sufficient resources to pay the country's debt and overcome the deficit
action
The Arroyo government pushed the law makers to pass the 12% VAT to pull together funds by collecting
more taxes to increase the national budget.
Positive Effect:
More taxes collected will mean more funds for the government to spare for various projects for the poor.
However, more taxes collected would mean higher cost of commodities that the public has to shoulde
The poor becomes poorer while the rich becomes richer. Higher taxes imposed will be passed on to
consumers as the businessmen remit increased taxes to the government as a result of higher cost of goods
paid for by consumers.
: "Power tends to

3
utely." Although
THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
e state, staying long

oday have
archy. MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)
upreme power or
on. (Usually Kings

CRITIQUES ON MACHIAVELLI’S PRINCIPLE

) Lord
e should Acton,
never a British statesman, once said: "Power tends to corrupt and
d end. We should
absolute power corrupts absolutely." Although power is used to maintain
and to govern
s performed should the state, staying long in power could also be dangerous.
wiseThis
it lacksis the reason why so many countries today have abandoned the
it may not be
political
uently say that system called monarchy.
ght enough in itself,
Monarchy- a state or nation in which the supreme power or sovereignty is
eason.
cumque defectu"
actually
every respect;held
it is by a single person. (Usually Kings and Queens)
 : "Power tends to

3
tely." Although
THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
state, staying long

oday have abandoned

MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)
preme power or
on. (Usually Kings
CRITIQUES ON MACHIAVELLI’S PRINCIPLE
3) "The end does not justify the means." We should never employ
e should never
bad
end. We means
should not in order to attain a good end. We should not do evil so
that good may result.
s performed should
iseThe
it lackscircumstances under which the action is performed should be in
t may not be thereby
entire conformity with reason, otherwise it lacks something of moral
y that something
completeness,
n itself, but he did though it may not be thereby rendered totally immoral.
We defectu"
cumque frequently say that something which a person has done was right
enough
every respect; in
it isitself, but he did not do it in the proper place or season.
3 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

CRITIQUES ON MACHIAVELLI’S
PRINCIPLE
4) "Bonum ex integra causa, malum ex
quocumque defectu" means "an action is
good when it is good in every respect; it is
wrong when it is wrong in every respect."
4 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)

BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
• ON MANAGEMENT
A management style where all employees are required to work very
hard no matter what it takes just to achieve the bottom line could be a
scenario of applying the Machiavellian principle.
The means to achieve a goal of a corporation takes all measures,
even changing the lifestyle of the person.
 4 THE MACHIAVELLIN PRINCIPLE (NICCOLO
MACHIAVELLI 1469-1527)
BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
• ON THE INDIVIDUAL
In meeting the demands of a job to make both ends meet or to provide for a
comfortable life for the family, people tend to prioritize their time for work over
time for family.
In effect, the good objective of providing for the family becomes the excuse for
neglecting other responsibilities. Even if they want to ensure a better life for
their family by working hard, if home-life becomes farfetched, there may be no
more family to offer the fruits of working hard.
• ON LEADERSHIP
At times, we need a strong autocratic leader to motivate people and to attain
goals of a state or organization.
2 UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN
STUART MILL
From the latin words, utilie bonum” or utilis which means usefulness
 
A theory of morality holding that all actions should be judged for rightness and
wrongness in terms of their consequences; thus, the amount of pleasure people derive
from those consequences becomes the measure of moral goodness. Jeremy Bentham and
John Stuart Mill, were the chief proponents of this view.

To a utilitarian, the effects or consequences determine the goodness or badness of an

action. In other words, an act is considered moral if it results in good consequences,
otherwise it is immoral. An act is good if and when it gives good results, if it works, if it
makes you successful, and if you attain your purpose.
4 UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN
STUART MILL
 
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1842)
Jeremy Bentham was an English
philosopher, jurist and social reformer
regarded as the founder of modern
utilitarianism. Bentham defined as the
"fundamental axiom" of his philosophy the
principle that "it is the greatest happiness
of the greatest number that is the measure
of right and wrong"
4 UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN
STUART MILL
 
The Utilitarian Principle according to Bentham
can be coined in the phrase,
"the greatest good is the greatest pleasure of the
greatest number."

The "greatest happiness principle", or the

principle of utility, forms the cornerstone of all
Bentham's thought. By "happiness", he
understood a predominance of "pleasure" over
"pain".
4 UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN
STUART MILL
 
He wrote in The Principles of Morals and
Legislation:
"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of
two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for
them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well
as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand
the standard of right and wrong, on the other the
chain of causes and effects, are fastened to their
throne. They govern us in all we do, in all we say, in
all we think ..."
4UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN STUART MILL

The Utilitarian Principle according to Mill believed that

"happiness, not pleasure, should be the standard of
utility."
-Pleasure is not the same as happiness.
-For Mill the difference in happiness over pleasure is
significant; happiness having a higher qualitative edge
over the quantity of lower bestial pleasures.
4UTILITARIANISM OF JEREMY AND JOHN STUART MILL

FORMS OF PLEASURE
• PHYSICAL PLEASURE
The sensual indulgences to bodily gratification.
Examples: sexual intercourse, eating, drinking, and others
• MENTAL PLEASURE
Refers to the intellectual, spiritual, and moral pleasures.
Examples: Man's noble feelings, imagination, and moral sentiments
*Mill's utilitarianism refers to the mental pleasures when it defines happiness as a pleasure. Happiness pursues mental pleasures and
this is what differentiates utilitarianism from hedonism.
 4 UTILITARIANISM OF
JEREMY AND JOHN STUART MILL

CRITIUES ON UTILITARIANISM
1) Utilitarianism proposes an earthly goal for man which is the temporal welfare
here on earth. The ultimate and supreme purpose of man cannot be found in this life.
2) Utilitarianism makes morality relative. What is pleasant or useful to one
individual, may be painful and harmful to another individual. Relative morality
leads to moral chaos and confusion.
3) Utilitarian theory makes morality extrinsic. Utilitarianism, like hedonism,
confuses the nature of the act with the effect of the act.
4) Utilitarianism has a bias on the majority. ("The greatest good is the greatest
pleasure or happiness of the greatest number.")
4 UTILITARIANISM OF
JEREMY AND JOHN STUART MILL

BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
a. This principle is used in Cost- Benefit
Analysis. (More benefit, less cost is s good
action.)
b. It is also used in the formulation of budgets
c. It is also used in the resolution of Labor-
Management conflict.
D. Can also be used in the calculation of opportunity costs