Module – 1

Contents
 Functi onal Elements Of An Instrument
 Stati c And Dynamic Characteristi cs Of Zero And First Order Instruments
 Sources Of Errors In Measurement
 Techniques For Reducing Error
 Loading Eff ect Of Instruments
 Stati sti cal Evaluati on Of Measurement Data.

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 1

 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 An instrument
An instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed to
maintain a functional relationship between prescribed properties of physical
variables and must include ways and means of communication to a human
observer.
Most of the measurement system contains following main functional elements as
shown in figure 
 Primary sensing element.
 Variable conversion element  
 Variable manipulation element  
 Data transmission element
 Data presentation element
ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 2
 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 Fig. below shows the generalized or functional elements of an instrument
system.

Primary sensing element : -

The measurand is first detected by primary sensing element.
The primary sensing element transfers the measurand to variable conversion
element for further processing.
The output signal of a primary sensing element is a physical variable such as
displacement or voltage.
ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 3
 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 Fig. below shows the generalized or functional elements of an instrument
system.

Variable conversion element:  -

The output signal of a primary sensing element may require to be converted to
more suitable variables while preserving its information content.
This function is performed by variable conversion element and it may be
considered as an intermediate transducer

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 4

 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 Fig. below shows the generalized or functional elements of an instrument
system.

Variable manipulation element: -  

This element is an intermediate stage of a measuring system.
It modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering, etc; so that a desired
output is produced the physical nature of the variable remains unchanged during
this stage.

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 5

 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 Fig. below shows the generalized or functional elements of an instrument
system.

Data transmission element: -  

when the functional elements of the measuring system are spatially separated
then it becomes necessary to transmit signals from one element to another.
This function is performed by data transmission element.
It is an essential functional element where remote control operation is desired.
ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 6
 Functional Elements Of An Instrument
 Fig. below shows the generalized or functional elements of an instrument
system.

Data presentation element: -  usually information about the quantity being

measured is to be communicated to human observer for monitoring control and
analysis purpose. This is therefore, to be presented in form of human sensory
capability. This function is done by data presentation element..

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 7

 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Performance Characteristics
The characteristics of measurement instruments which are helpful to know the
performance of instrument and help in measuring any quantity or parameter, are
known as performance characteristics .
Types of performance characteristics
Performance characteristics of instruments can be classified into the
following two types.
 Static characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 8

 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Static characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that  do not
vary with respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these
quantities or parameters may vary slowly with respect to time.
Following are the list of  static characteristics .
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 Static error

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 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Static characteristics
The characteristics of quantities or parameters measuring instruments that  do not
vary with respect to time are called static characteristics. Sometimes, these
quantities or parameters may vary slowly with respect to time.
Following are the list of  static characteristics .
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 Static error

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 10

 Static And Dynamic Characteristics

Accuracy
It is the degree of closeness with which the
instrument reading approaches the true value
of the quantity to be measured.

Precision
It refers to how close together a series of
measurements are to each other.

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 Accuracy
Difference Vs. Precision
between Accuracy and Precision

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 Static And Dynamic Characteristics

Accuracy:
The algebraic difference between the indicated value of an
instrument, Ai and the true value, At is known as accuracy.
Mathematically, it can be represented as −
Accuracy=Ai−At
The term, accuracy signifies how much the indicated value of an
instrument, Ai is closer to the true value, At.

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 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Resolution
It defines the smallest change in measured quantity that can be observed.

Example
A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full scale reading is
200V and 1/10 of a scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainty.
Determine the resolution of the instrument in volt.
Solution: 1 scale division = 200/100 = 2V
Resolution = 1/10 *2V = 0.2V

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Static And Dynamic Characteristics

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 15

Static And Dynamic Characteristics

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 16

Static And Dynamic Characteristics

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 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics
The characteristics of the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities or
parameters that vary very quickly with respect to time are called dynamic
characteristics.
Following are the list of dynamic characteristics.
•Speed of Response
•Dynamic Error
•Fidelity
•Lag

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 18

 Static And Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of Response
The speed at which the instrument responds whenever there is any change in the quantity to be
measured is called speed of response. It indicates how fast the instrument is.
Lag
The amount of delay present in the response of an instrument whenever there is a change in the
quantity to be measured is called measuring lag. It is also simply called lag.
Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value, At of the quantity that varies with respect to time and the
indicated value of an instrument, Ai is known as dynamic error, ed.
Fidelity
The degree to which an instrument indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error is known as Fidelity.

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Dynamic Response of Zero Order Instrument

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Dynamic Response of Zero Order Instrument

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 21

Dynamic Response of First Order Instrument

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
Errors and their analysis
Errors are classified as:
1) Gross errors
2) Systematic errors
3) Random errors

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
Gross errors
This type of errors arises due to human mistakes in reading instruments
and recording and calculating measurement results.
Example: - misreading - 32.5mA as 32.5A
25.8 o C as 28.5 o C
These errors can be avoided by adopting two means such as:-
(i) Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
(ii) Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity
under measurement.

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
Systematic errors
These type of errors are divided into three categories: -
(i) Instrumental errors
(ii) Environmental errors
(iii) Observational errors

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
(I) instrumental errors
These errors arises due to three main reasons: -
 Due to inherent shortcomings in the instrument,
 Due to misuse of the instruments,
 Due to loading effects of instruments.
Inherent shortcomings
 Due to constructions, calibration, etc.
Example: - spring in permanent magnet instrument has become weak.
Eliminate: -
 Procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
 Correction factors should be applied.
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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
(I) instrumental errors
Misuse of instruments
 Errors caused are due to fault of the operator.
Example: - failure to adjust the zero of instruments,
poor initial adjustments.
Loading effects
 Errors arises due to improper use of an instrument for
measurement.
Example: - a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage
reading when connected across high resistance circuit.

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
(Ii) Environmental errors
 Errors arises due to conditions external to the measuring devices
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
Example: - temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations, etc.
(Iii) Observational errors
 These are the errors introduced by the observer.
Example: - parallax errors, etc.

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  Sources Of Errors In Measurement
Random errors
Causes of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called
random errors.
Example:- variations of readings from one to another.

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 Statistical Analysis.
Mean
Deviation
Standard deviation
Variance
Probable error

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 Mean

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 Deviation from Mean

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 Problem

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 Average Deviation

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 Average Deviation

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 Standard Deviation

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 Standard Deviation

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 Problem-2
(2) A set of independent current measurement was taken by
six observers and recorded as 12.8ma, 12.2ma, 12.5ma,
13.1ma, 12.9ma and 12.4ma. Calculate (a) the arithmetic
mean (b) the deviations from the mean (c) the average
deviation

Ans: - (a) 12.65mA

(b) 0.15mA, -0.45mA, -0.15mA, 0.45mA, 0.25mA, -0.25mA
(c) 0.283mA

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 Problem-3
(3) TEN MEASUREMENTS OF THE RESISTANCE
OF A RESISTOR GAVE 101.2Ω, 101.7Ω, 101.3Ω,
101.0Ω, 101.5Ω, 101.3Ω, 101.2Ω, 101.4Ω, 101.3Ω
AND 101.1Ω. ASSUME THAT ONLY RANDOM
ERRORS ARE PRESENT. CALCULATE (A) THE
ARITHMETIC MEAN, (B) THE STANDARD
DEVIATION OF THE READINGS (C) THE
PROBABLE ERROR.

ANS: - (A) 101.3Ω

(B) 0.2Ω
(C) 0.1349Ω

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 Absolute Error and Relative Error
 IFA RESISTOR IS KNOWN TO HAVE A
RESISTANCE OF 500 Ω WITH A POSSIBLE
ERROR OF ±50 Ω, THE ±50 Ω IS AN ABSOLUTE
ERROR.
WHEN THE ERROR IS EXPRESSED AS A
PERCENTAGE, IT BECOMES RELATIVE ERROR.
EXAMPLE: - RELATIVE ERROR
RESISTANCE = 500 Ω ± 10%

RELATIVE ERROR IS DEFINED AS THE

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 Problem – 4
 (4) THE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE VOLTAGE
ACROSS A RESISTOR IS 80V. HOWEVER, THE
MEASUREMENT GIVES A VALUE OF 79V.
CALCULATE (I) ABSOLUTE ERROR (II) %
RELATIVE ERROR.
SOLUTION:
EXPECTED VALUE, (Y) = 80V
MEASURED VALUE, (X) = 79V,
(i) ABSOLUTE ERROR = Y – X = 1V
(ii) % RELATIVE ERROR = = 1.25%

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 Problem – 5
(5) A BATCH OF RESISTORS THAT EACH HAVE
A NOMINAL RESISTANCE OF 330 Ω ARE TO BE
TESTED AND CLASSIFIED AS ±5% AND ±10%
COMPONENTS. CALCULATE THE MAXIMUM
AND MINIMUM ABSOLUTE RESISTANCE FOR
EACH CASE.

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Sources Of Errors In Measurement

ASUTOSH PATNAIK, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF EEE, CVRGU 43