Naturopathic Nutrition

Trace Elements: Zinc,

Copper, Chromium, Boron
& Selenium
ZINC
 CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Zn2+
 MAJOR SOURCES: Meat, liver, eggs and
seafood (especially oysters and shellfish).
Also found in nuts, legumes, whole grains
and seeds but may be inferior sources due
to high phytate content.
 RDI 8-14 mg/day UL 40mg/day
 Therapeutic Dose 10-100mg/day (25-
50mg elemental zinc for deficiency states).
Much of the following information about zinc is sourced from Braun, L.
& Cohen, M 2010, Herbs & Natural Supplements: An evidence-based
guide, 3rd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, Sydney
ZINC
 TOXICITY: Nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, fever
and lethargy. Single doses of 225-450mg usually
induce vomiting. Doses of 100-150mg daily
lower copper levels and cause red blood cell
microcytosis and neutropaenia in the long term.

 ADVERSE EFFECTS: Mild gastrointestinal

distress may occur at doses of 50-150mg daily.
FUNCTIONS
 Described as one of the “Type II nutrients” which
are cellular building blocks. Zinc (together with
essential amino acids, magnesium, potassium,
phosphorus, protein and sulfur) is required for the
synthesis of new tissue.
 Growth & development
 Normal immune response (especially T-cell
function).
 Neurological function (has neuromodulatory
effects)
FUNCTIONS
 Antioxidant:
 Protects against vitamin E depletion
 Controls vitamin A release
 Contributes to antioxidant enzymes
 Maintains tissue levels of metallothionein –
scavenger of free radicals
 Stabilises membrane structure
 Decreases lipid peroxidation
 Protects mononuclear cells from effects of
oxidative stress
FUNCTIONS
 Component of metalloenzymes (trace mineral
dependent enzymes):
 Zinc is the most significant trace element for
metalloenzymes
 Involved in innumerable chemical reactions such as:
 Carbohydrate metabolism
 Protein & DNA synthesis
 Digestion
 Bone metabolism
 Endogenous antioxidant systems
 Insulin-like activity – essential for normal
function of insulin activated signalling pathway
ZINC
 CLINICAL DEFICIENCY DISEASE: Rarely
seen in western cultures. Impaired growth.
 SUB-CLINICAL DEFICIENCY SIGNS: More
common in western cultures but very hard to
diagnose:
 Anorexia, impaired taste & smell

 Slowed growth & development

 Delayed sexual maturation and menstrual

problems (significant deficiency)

 Dermatitis

 Alopecia

 Chronic diarrhoea
ZINC
 Immune deficiencies & increased
susceptibility to infection (bacterial, fungal &
viral)
 Impaired wound healing (decreased collagen
synthesis)
 Nigh blindness
 Mental fatigue & depression
 Less consistently reported:
 Reduced testosterone in males
 Nail dystrophy (possibly white spots)
 Erectile dysfunction
 Photophobia
 Reduced alcohol clearance
 Impaired protein synthesis
ZINC
 Deficiency in pregnancy associated with:
 Maternal morbidity
 Pre-eclampsia
 Toxaemia
 Prolonged gestation
 Inefficient labour
 Atonic bleeding
 Increased risk of abortion & stillbirths
 Teratogenicity
 Low birth weight
 Mild cognitive deficits in the newborn
ZINC
 Dietary zinc intake does not guarantee adequate
zinc status due to poor absorption.
 High phytate foods reduce zinc absorption (e.g.
whole grains, seeds & nuts).
 Calcium is the main antagonistic mineral so a
calcium rich diet may cause zinc deficiency.
 Vegetarians & vegans at risk of deficiency.
 Cirrhosis and malabsorption syndromes impair
absorption.
 Severe burns, major surgery, chronic diarrhoea,
diabetes, HIV/AIDS, strenuous exercise,
elevated temperatures increases losses.
ZINC - Clinical Use:
 Deficiency
 Common cold – increased zinc concentrations in
nasal cavity prevents rhinovirus binding to cells
and modulates immune response. May inhibit
viral replication.
 Reduces infections in elderly
 Age-related macular degeneration
 Diabetes mellitus types 1 and 2 – preventative
and possibly for treatment. Possibly protects
beta cells of pancreas and thus assists
maintaining insulin secretion.
 Improve wound healing
 Arterial & venous leg ulcers (in deficiency)
ZINC - Clinical Use:
 Acne and skin conditions (appears to have an
anti-inflammatory effect)
 Reduced male fertility – for health sperm
production
 Impotence – for testosterone synthesis
 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
 Depression
 Diarrhoea
 Crohn’s disease
 Herpes simplex
 Anorexia nervosa – zinc deficiency may be a
sustaining factor
ZINC - Clinical Use:
 To improve taste perception
 Tinnitus – due to involvement in glutamate
receptors
 Warts
 Reducing risk of cancer (possibly)
 HIV / AIDS
 Pneumonia
 Wilson’s disease
 Alzheimer’s disease (possibly improves cognitive
function)
 Interactions:
 Coffee reduces zinc absorption – separate
intake by 2 hours
 High zinc intakes interfere with copper
metabolism – avoid long term use of high
doses or increase copper intake.
 Long term folate intake may reduce zinc
levels – folate is often given in conjunction
with methotrexate for autoimmune disease
(e.g. RA, SLE, Psoriasis).
 Iron supplementation decreases zinc
absorption – separate doses by 2 hours
 Interactions:
 Interacts with NSAIDS and tetracyclines –
separate doses by 2 hours.
 Thiazide and loop diuretics increase urinary
zinc loss – many elderly persons use these
medications.
 Vaccinations – May improve seroconversion
 Radiotherapy reduces plasma zinc levels
 Zinc supplementation improves efficacy of
antidepressants (tricyclic and SSRIs).
ZINC TASTE TEST
Client should not eat, drink or smoke for at least one hour
before the test. Ask them to place about 1 tsp. of zinc
sulfate heptahydrate in their mouth for 10 seconds, then
swallow. After 30 seconds, their taste responses will fall into
4 categories:
1) Tasteless or “like water”
2) Slowly developing dry, “furry” or sweet taste
3) Immediate unpleasant taste which increases over time
4) Strong immediate unpleasant taste
Categories 1 or 2 suggest client requires zinc.

However, note that the test is not particularly

accurate and is affected by the client’s
subjective taste sensation. Clinical studies
suggest results are inconsistent.
 Much of the following material on copper is sourced from

COPPER Jamison, J 2003, Clinical Guide to Nutrition and Dietary

Supplements in Disease Management, Churchill Livingstone,
Victoria

 CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Cu
 MAJOR SOURCES: Organ meats, seafood,
mushrooms, beans, nuts, whole grains &
chocolate. Drinking water from copper pipes;
using copper cookware and foods sprayed with
copper containing chemicals.
 RDI: none set UL:10mg
 Therapeutic dose: 2-4mg
 TOXICITY: In excess of 10mg daily reduces
absorption of zinc and iron. Copper toxicosis
may manifest with nausea, abdominal &
muscle pain, irritability and depression.
FUNCTIONS
 Haemoglobin synthesis
 Neural function
 Control of free radicals – component of
antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide
dismutase.
 Component of cytochrome C oxidase used in
electron transport chain for oxidative energy
production.
 Iron metabolism:
 Oxidation-reduction, mobilization, and transport of
iron.
 Activation of enzymes for tissue formation
and repair.
 Skin pigmentation through the synthesis of
melanin.
 Metabolism of glucose, cholesterol & myelin.
COPPER
 DEFICIENCY: Rare.
A diet low in copper may increase the risk of:
 Skeletal disease / osteoporosis (apparently

due to interactions with synergistic minerals

and trace elements.)
 Cardiovascular disease (adverse effects on

cholesterol ratio).
 Weakened collagen and elastin (also

contributing to skeletal and cardiovascular

disorders).
 Copper deficiency anaemia.

 Depigmented, greyish hair that has lost its

regular wave.
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS:
 Anaemia: synergistic with Fe, B9, B12
 Patient will not respond to iron supplementation.
Copper is necessary for the mobilization of iron
stores.
 Nervous disorders: depression, neural tube
disorders, seizures, motor unco-ordination.
 Skin disorders: lesions, defective pigmentation,
alopecia, greying hair.
 Connective tissue disorders: Arthritis, back pain,
atherosclerosis.
 Osteoporosis
 Cardiovascular disease
OTHER COMMENTS
 As Cu pipes age they deposit Cu into drinking water &
potentially cause Cu toxicity.
 Persons with Wilson’s disease must avoid copper.
Wilson’s disease is a metabolic disorder where Cu is
not excreted & accumulation in liver & brain can
cause liver failure, psychosis, coma & death.
 Body copper content is regulated by bile excretion.
 Copper salicylate has analgesic and anti-inflammatory
effects.
 Persons using long-term zinc supplementation should
ensure that they are getting adequate copper intake.
Copper status can be measured from the level of
copper-zinc-superoxide dismutase in erythrocytes
(depressed in deficiency).
Wilson’s disease

http://www.graphicshunt.com/health/images/wilsons_disease-2000.htm
BORON
Much of the following material on boron is sourced from
Jamison, J 2003, Clinical Guide to Nutrition and Dietary
Supplements in Disease Management, Churchill Livingstone,
Victoria

 CHEMICAL SYMBOL: B
 MAJOR SOURCES: Plant based foods especially
prunes, almonds, raisins, wine, parsley,
hazelnuts, peanuts, apples & peaches. (2-3mg
boron in 100g prunes.)
 No RDI
 Dose: Not usually supplemented separately.
Found in calcium / bone supplements. Acceptable
range is 1-10mg/day.
 TOXICITY: Safe up to 10mg per day. In excess
of 100mg / day may cause GIT problems,
dermatitis and lethargy.
FUNCTIONS:
 Plays an important role in calcium
metabolism.
 May influence metabolism of copper,
magnesium, potassium and vitamin D.
 Appears to also activate oestrogen further
enhancing bone maintenance.
 Energy production
BORON
 DEFICIENCY SIGNS:
 Calcium and/or Vitamin D deficiency signs.
 Impaired cognition
 THERAPEUTIC USES:
 Osteoporosis
 Arthritis.
 When Calcium and/or vitamin D
supplementation is indicated.
 May reduce post menopausal night sweats /
hot flushes
 Topically for psoriasis (inhibits
proinflammatory cytokines)
CHROMIUM
 CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Cr
 MAJOR SOURCES: Brewer’s yeast, beer,
wholegrains, egg yolk, cheese, bananas,
spinach, mushrooms, broccoli, organ meats
and processed meats.
 AI: 25-35mcg
 Therapeutic Dose:100-500mcg
 TOXICITY: Cr3 (trivalent / dietary chromium) is
essential & non-toxic, but Cr6+ (hexavalent) is
readily absorbed through the skin and is toxic.
Much of the following information about chromium is sourced from Braun, L & Cohen, M 2010,
Herbs & Natural Supplements: An evidence-based guide, 3rd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier,
Sydney
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS
 Component of glucose tolerance factor (with
nicotinic acid, and the amino acids cycsteine,
glycine and glutamic acid).
 Required for carbohydrate, lipid, protein and
corticosteroid metabolism.
 Improves blood glucose control
 CHO metabolism
 Increases insulin sensitivity
 Enhances action and binding of insulin and increases
number of insulin receptors
 May decrease triglyceride levels and improve LDL
/ HDL ratio.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS
 Lowers sugar induced elevated blood
pressure (has an effect on the renin-
angiotensin system).
 Antidepressant effect due to association of
depression with insulin resistance and
influence on serotonergic pathways.
 Immunomodulatory effects and
antiinflammatory
 Bone density protection
 Antioxidant
 Increases dehydroepiandrosterone (5-DHEA)
THERAPEUTIC APPLICATIONS
 Diabetes
 Hypoglycemia / CHO cravings
 Metabolic syndrome
 Impaired glucose tolerance / Insulin
resistance
 Hyperlipidaemia
 Obesity
 Atypical depression
 Polycystic ovarian syndrome
OTHER COMMENTS:
 Complexation of chromium with picolinic acid
appears to increase its absorption. (There has
been concern in the past that picolinic acid forms may be
implicated in cancer. However, this appears to be
without foundation as long as supplementation occurs at
moderate doses.)
 Secondary chromium deficiency is caused when
requirements are increased or excretion is
increased. E.g. Pregnancy, excessive exercise,
infection, physical trauma and stress increase
requirements. High sugar diets and
corticosteroids increase urinary losses of
chromium.
SELENIUM
 CHEMICAL SYMBOL: Se
 MAJOR SOURCES: Brewer’s yeast, wheat germ,
meats, fish and seafood, Brazil nuts, garlic and
organ meats.
 RDI : 60-70mcg UL: 400mcg
 Therapeutic dose: 100-600mcg (Usually 26mcg
tablet or 50mcg powder. Best to stay under
200mcg daily).
 TOXICITY: >1mg/day causes may cause fatigue,
depression, arthritis, hair or fingernail loss, garlicky
breath or body odour, GIT disorders or irritability.

Much of the following information about selenium is sourced from Braun, L & Cohen, M 2010,
Herbs & Natural Supplements: An evidence-based guide, 3rd edn, Churchill Livingstone Elsevier,
Sydney
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS:
 Antioxidant. Part of:
 Thioredoxin reductase
 Glutathione peroxidases
 Chemoprotective – inhibits early steps in
carcinogenesis
 Immunomodulation – improved activation and
proliferation of B and T cell function. (Selenium
concentrations significantly decrease in acute
infection.)
 Thyroid hormone synthesis, activation and
metabolism
PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTIONS:
 Testosterone synthesis
 Sperm maturation and motility
 Antiinflammatory
 Reduces heavy metal toxicity (cadmium,
arsenic, lead, silver and mercury).
 Antiatherogenic activity – counteracts synthesis
of atherogenic form of LDL.
 There is a complex relationship between selenium and
vitamin E which is not properly understood. Vitamins A,
E and C can modulate selenium absorption.
SELENIUM

 DEFICIENCY: Very low selenium status

appears to cause Keshan disease (a
juvenile cardiomyopathy) and Kashin-
Beck disease (a chondrodystrophy).
These diseases only occur in selenium
deficient regions of China.
SELENIUM
 DEFICIENCY: Low selenium status may be
associated with:
 Loss of immunocompetence
 Increased risk of cancer

 Reduced male fertility

 Poor prognosis in HIV and AIDS

 Depression, anxiety, confusion and hostility

 Compromised thyroid hormone metabolism

 Asthma and atopy

 Rheumatoid arthritis

 Increased inflammation

 Changes to drug metabolising enzymes

THERAPEUTIC USES
 Cancer. Prevention and adjunct to
treatment. Studies support benefit in liver,
prostate, stomach and oesphageal,
colorectal, premalignant skin lesions, female
reproductive and oral cancers.
 Reducing mortality from HIV infection
 Preventing cardiovascular disease
 Diabetes – seems to be involved in aspects
of pancreatic beta-cell and islet function.
 Asthma
 Autoimmune thyroiditis
THERAPEUTIC USES
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 Lowered male fertility
 General immune enhancement
 Mood elevation and reduced anxiety
 Male infertility
 Absorption of selenomethionine and
selenocysteine is high than with inorganic
forms.
Warnings:
 The Therapeutic Goods Act has been altered
to allow the amount of Selenium in products
to be 150mcg. Products containing selenium
must contain the caution: “This product
contains selenium which is toxic in high
doses. A daily dose of 150 microgram for
adults of selenium from dietary supplements
should not be exceeded.”
 Adverse reactions may include nausea,
vomiting, nail changes, irritability and
fatigue.