Signals and Antennas

Lecture-6
Dr. Rahul Saha
Lovely Professional University
How your mobile device works ?
Connecting with Mobile Devices through
Router

https://www.thelifenetwork.org/about/
Generic 4G Architecture

Serving GPRS Support Node

Radio network controller (RNC)

SIP-I, Session Initiation Protocol

Evolution of Mobile network generations

https://its-wiki.no/images/c/c8/From_1G_to_5G_Simon.pdf
Communication Model (generic)
 Why Digital ?
 Maximize the data rate: number of bits that the system can transmit in a unit of time
 within an acceptable bit error rate

 Why there could be bit errors?

 The signal received by the receiver is different from the signal sent from the sender

 Usually, if data rate becomes higher, it is more difficult for the receiver to recognize the
signal
 higher data rate results in higher bit error rate

 In order to achieve high data rate with low bit error rate, we need to study the principle
of data communications
• Digital transmission techniques are widely used because of the following advantages:

• Digital technology
• The advent of low cost LSI/VLSI technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and size of
digital circuitry.
• Data integrity
• With the use of repeaters, the effects of noise and other impairments are not cumulative. Thus it is
possible to transmit data longer distances and over lower quality lines while maintaining the
integrity of the data.
• Capacity utilization
• High bandwidth links become economical.
• High degree of multiplexing is easier with digital techniques.
• Security & Privacy
• Encryption technique can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data that have been
digitized.
• Integration
• By treating both analog and digital data digitally, all signals have the same form and can be treated
similarly. Thus economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video,
and digital data.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the difference between the
upper and lower frequencies in a
continuous band of frequencies.

Bandwidth in hertz is a central concept in

many fields:

electronics, information theory, digital

communications, radio communications,
signal processing, and spectroscopy and is
one of the determinants of the capacity of
a given communication channel.
Bandwidth and Frequency

https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-bandwidth-and-spectrum/
Terminologies
Spectrum of a signal
the range of frequencies
contained in the signal

Absolute bandwidth of a
signal
the width of the signal spectrum,
Many signals have an infinite
bandwidth!

Effective bandwidth of a
signal
often just referred to as
bandwidth
the narrow band of frequencies
containing “most” of the signal
energy
. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXt-rXDu9M8
Signals
A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current
that is used for carrying data from one device or
network to another.

It is the key component behind virtually all:

•Communication
•Computing
•Networking
•Electronic devices

A signal can be either analog or digital.

The key difference between analog and digital signals in

tabular form is shown below. An analog signal signifies a
continuous signal that keeps changes with a time period.
A digital signal signifies a discrete signal that carries
binary data and has discrete values. Digital signal is square
waves.
Radio Frequency Signals
An RF signal is an electromagnetic wave that communications systems use to transport information through air
from one point to another.
They provide the means for carrying music to FM radios and video to televisions. In fact, RF signals are the most
common means for carrying data over a wireless network.
  The frequency describes how many times per second that the signal repeats itself. The unit for frequency is Hertz
(Hz), which is the number of cycles occurring each second.

 For example, an 802.11b wireless LAN operates at a frequency of 2.4 GHz, which means that the signal includes
2,400,000,000 cycles per second.

http://etutorials.org/Networking/wn/Chapter+3.+Radio+Frequency+and+Light+Signal+Fundamentals+The+Invisible+Medi
um/Understanding+RF+Signals/#:~:text=An%20RF%20signal%20is%20an,radios%20and%20video%20to%20televisions.
How Bandwidth is important for Mobile
Computing ?

Network bandwidth is the capacity of a wired or wireless network communications link to transmit the
maximum amount of data from one point to another over a computer network or internet connection in a
given amount of time -- usually, one second. Synonymous with capacity, bandwidth describes the data
transfer rate.

Wireless bandwidth is a scarce resource in a cellular mobile network. As such, it is important to

effectively allocate bandwidth to each cell such that the overall system performance is optimized.
Channel allocation strategies have been extensively studied for voice communications in cellular
networks.
Analog Sampling and Digital signal

https://www.globalspec.co
m/learnmore/data_acquisi
tion_signal_conditioning/si
gnal_converting/analog_to
_digital_converters
Nyquist Theorem
• If rate of signal transmission is 2B then signal with frequencies no
greater than B is sufficient to carry signal rate
• Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B
• Given binary signal, data rate supported by B Hz is 2B bps
• Can be increased by using M signal levels
• C= 2B log2M
• Noise-free channel
• C = Capacity of the channel, B = Bandwidth, M = Number of discrete
signal or voltage level
https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/technical-articles/nyquist-shannon-theorem-understanding-sampled-systems/
Example of Nyquist Theorem

As an example, humans can detect or hear frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to

20,000 Hz. If we were to store sound, like music, to a CD, the audio signal must be
sampled at a rate of at least 40,000 Hz to reproduce the 20,000 Hz signal.

A standard CD is sampled at 44,100 times per second, or 44.1 kHz

 Shannon Theorem
• Consider data rate, noise and error rate
• Shannon's Law,  the maximum rate at which information can be
transmitted over a communications channel of a specified bandwidth in
the presence of noise. Signal to noise ratio (SNR) (in decibels)
• SNRdb= 10 log10 (signal/noise)
• Capacity C=B log2(1+SNR)
• This is error free capacity
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem
 Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection
 Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large as
compared to wavelength
- e.g., the surface of the Earth, buildings, walls, etc.
 Diffraction
 Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by
surface with sharp irregular edges
 Waves bend around the obstacle, even when LOS (line of sight)
does not exist
 Scattering
 Objects smaller than the wavelength of the
propagation wave
- e.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts

21
 Radio Propagation Effects
Building

Direct Signal

hb Reflected Signal
Diffracted
Signal hm

d
Transmitter Receiver

22
 Free-space Propagation

hb

hm

Transmitter Distance d
Receiver

 The received signal power at distance d:

AeGtPt
Pr 
4d 2
where Pt is transmitting power, Ae is effective area, and Gt is the
transmitting antenna gain. Assuming that the radiated power is uniformly
distributed over the surface of the sphere.

23
 Antenna
 In radio engineering, an antenna is the interface between radio waves propagating through space
and electric currents moving in metal conductors, used with a transmitter or receiver. 

 In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current to the antenna's terminals, and the
antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves).

 In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of a radio wave in order to produce an electric
current at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified.

 Antennas are essential components of all radio equipment.

https://www.electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/microstrip-antenna-applications
Wire Antenna
Aperture Antenna
Printed Antenna
Array Antenna
Reflector Antenna
Lens antenna
Fundamental Antenna Concepts
• Reciprocity
• Radiation Patterns
• Isotropic Radiator
• Gain
• Polarization

32
Reciprocity
• In general, the various properties of an antenna apply equally
regardless of whether it is used for transmitting or receiving
• Transmission/reception efficiency
• Gain
• Current and voltage distribution
• Impedance

33
 Radiation Patterns

• Radiation pattern
• Graphical
representation of
radiation properties
of an antenna
• Depicted as a two-
dimensional cross
section
• Reception pattern
• Receiving antenna’s
equivalent to
radiation pattern
35
 Antenna Gain
• Antenna gain
• Power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in any direction
by an isotropic antenna(perfect omnidirectional antenna)
• Effective area
• Related to physical size and shape of the antenna

36
Antenna Gain (cont.)
• Relationship between antenna gain and
effective area

• G  antenna gain
• Ae  effective area
• f  carrier frequency
• c  speed of light (» 3 x 108 m/s)
•   carrier wavelength

37
38
Propagation Modes
• Ground-wave propagation
• Sky-wave propagation
• Line-of-sight propagation

39
Ground Wave Propagation
• Follows contour of the earth
• Can propagate considerable distances
• Frequencies up to 2 MHz
• Example
• AM radio

40
Sky Wave Propagation
• Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere back down to earth
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth between ionosphere and
earth’s surface
• Reflection effect caused by refraction
• Examples
• Amateur radio
• CB radio

41
Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight
• Refraction
• Bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
• Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the density of the medium
• When wave changes medium, speed changes
• Wave bends at the boundary between mediums

42
Line-of-Sight Equations
• Optical line of sight

d  3.57 h
• Effective (or radio) line of sight
d  3.57 h

• d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)

• h = antenna height (m)
• K = adjustment factor to account for refraction, rule of
thumb K = 4/3

43
Line-of-Sight Equations
• Maximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation:

• h1 = height of antenna one

• h2 = height of antenna two

d max  3.57 h1  h2 

44
LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments

• Attenuation and attenuation distortion

• Free space loss
• Noise
• Atmospheric absorption
• Multipath
• Refraction
• Thermal noise

45
Attenuation
• Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium
• Attenuation factors for unguided media:
• Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver
can interpret the signal
• Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error
• Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion

46
 Free Space Loss

• For satellite communication this is the primary mode of signal loss.

• Even if no other sources of attenuation or impairment are assumed, a transmitted

signal attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread over a larger and
larger area. This form of attenuation is known as free space loss

47
Categories of Noise
• Thermal Noise
• Intermodulation noise
• Crosstalk
• Impulse Noise

48
Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
• Present in all electronic devices and transmission media
• Cannot be eliminated
• Function of temperature
• Particularly significant for satellite communication

49
Noise Terminology
• Intermodulation noise
• Occurs if signals with different frequencies share the
same medium
• Crosstalk
• Unwanted coupling between signal paths

http://www.cabletesting.com

50
Noise Terminology
• Impulse noise
• Irregular pulses or noise spikes
• Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
• Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system

51
Other Impairments
• Atmospheric absorption
• Water vapor and oxygen contribute to attenuation
• Multipath
• Obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies with
varying delays are received
• Refraction
• Bending of radio waves as they propagate through the
atmosphere

52
Fading in Mobile Environment
• Fading
• Time variation of received signal power caused by changes in transmission medium
or path(s)

53
 Multipath Propagation (MP)
• Reflection
• Occurs when signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
• Diffraction
• Occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to wavelength
of radio wave
• Scattering
• Occurs when incoming signal hits an object whose size is in the order of the
wavelength of the signal or less

54
The Effects of MP Propagation
• Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases
• If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to noise declines, making
detection more difficult
• Known as Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

55
Where is the antenna in our mobile phone ?
Cell site antenna
Components of Cell Tower
Antenna for mobile device communication
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaXm6wau-jc
Why interference ?
Antenna Types and other features

https://bu.edu.eg/portal/uploads/Engineering,%20Shoubra/Electrical%20Engineering/2461/crs-12001/Files/E-7
16-A_lec12.pdf

All the students must go through this link completely.

Functioning of Antenna
Test Equipment: The Anechoic Chamber
• The anechoic chamber is used to set up antennas in a location that is free from reflections
in order to evaluate them
Some important questions for enhancing the knowledge

What is monopole and dipole antenna ?

What is radiation in antenna ?

What is lobe in antenna ?

Antenna downlit ?

How antenna works?

Other readings
https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-antennas/

https://www.elprocus.com/different-types-of-antennas-with-properties-and-thier-working/