Design and Analysis of

Algorithms
MS. UMA.S
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
COMPUTER SCIENCE/COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
THIRUVALLUVAR UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE
TIRUPATTUR – 635901
 Unit I
Operating Systems Basics
 UNIT-I (II M.Sc)
 Algorithm Analysis – Time Space Tradeoff – Asymptotic Notations – Conditional
asymptotic notation – Removing condition from the conditional asymptotic
notation - Properties of big-Oh notation – Recurrence equations – Solving
recurrence equations – Analysis of linear search.
 UNIT -I: ALGORITHM AND ANALYSIS
 What is an Algorithm? - Algorithm Specification- Performance Analysis-
Randomized Algorithms.
 Unit I
 Basic Concepts of Operating System
 Services of Operating System
 Classification of Operating System
 Architecture and Design of an Operating System
 Process Management
 Introduction to Process-Process State
 PCB
 Process Scheduling
 Interprocess Communication
Basic Concepts of Operating Systems

 Introduction
 Definition – OS
 Goals of OS
 Types of OS
 INTRODUCTION

 OPERATING SYSTEMS – OS
 An important part of almost every computer systems
 A computer system can be divided into 4 components
:
 The hardware
 Operating system
 Application programs
 User
 Hardware - CPU, memory and I/O devices –
 Provides the basic computing resources
 Application Programs - compilers, database systems,
games and business programs
 Define the ways in which these resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users.
 Users
 Many different users –people, machines, other computers
 Trying to solve different problems
 Accordingly there may be many different applications
 Operating System – controls and coordinates
 the use of the hardware among the various
application programs for the various users
 OS – Government
 Components of the computer systems
 Hardware

 Software

 Data

 OSprovides the means for the proper use of

these resources in the operation of the computer
system
 Like government – OS provides no useful function
by itself.

 Itsimply provides an environment within which

other programs can do useful work
 OS- viewed as an resource allocator
 Computer system has many resources that may be required
to solve a problem
 CPU time
 Memory space
 File storage spaces
 I/O devices …
 OS acts as a manager of these resources and allocates
them to specific programs and users
 OS decides which requests are allocated resources to
operate the computer system efficiently and fairly
 OS – focuses on the need to control the various
I/O devices and user programs
 OS – control program
 ControlProgram controls the execution of user
programs to prevent error and improper use of
the computer.
 Concerns with the operation and control of I/O
devices.
 Fundamental goal of computer systems is
 To execute user programs and to make solving user
problems easier
 Towards this goal, computer hardware is
constructed.
 Since bare hardware alone is not particularly easy
to use; applications programs are developed.

 These various programs require certain common
operations
 Controlling the I/O devices
 The common functions of controlling and allocating
resources – done by OS
 Definition
 Is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a
computer and the computer hardware
 Purpose of OS
 To provide an environment in which a user can execute programs
 Primary Goal :
 To make the computer system convenient to use. [convenience for the
user]
 Secondary Goal :
 To use the computer hardware in an efficient manner [ Efficient operation
of computer system]
 Services of Operating System

 OS provides an environment for the execution of program

 OS services are provided for the convenience of the
programmer to make the programming task easier.
 Program Execution :
 System must be able to load a program into memory and to run it.
 Program must be able to end its execution either normally or
abnormally
 I/O Operations :
A running program may require I/O
 I/O may involve a file or an I/O device,
 Specific devices may require special function.
 File-System Manipulation :
 Programs need to read and write files, create and
delete files by name.
 Communication :
 Oneprocess needs to exchange information with another
process.
 Two major ways in which communication occurs
 1)Communication takes place between processes executing on the
same computer
 2) Communication takes place between processes executing on
different computer system through computer network
 Communications may be implemented via
 Shared Memory or
 Message passing
 Error detection
 OS needs to be aware of possible errors.
 Errors may occur in the
 CPU

 Memory hardware
 I/O devices
 User Programs
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate
action to ensure correct and consistent computing
 Resource Allocation
 Many different types of resources are managed by the
OS.
 When there are multiple users or multiple jobs running
at the same time, resources must be allocated to each
of them
 Accounting
 To keep track
which users used
how much and what kinds of computer resources
 Record keeping may be for
Accounting or accumulating usage statistics. (to
improve the computing services)
 Protection
 When several disjoint processes execute concurrently
 it should not be possible for one process to interfere with
the other or with the OS itself
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system
resources is controlled.
 Security from outsiders is also important
 Requires authentication - Passwords
 Classification of Operating System

 Simple batch Systems

 Multi Programming Systems
 Time Sharing Systems
 Multi Processor System
 Distributed Operating Systems
 Real Time Operating Systems
 Simple batch Systems

 In this type of system, there is no direct interaction

between user and the computer.
 Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch
cards and submits it to the computer operator.
 To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are
batched together and run as a group.
 Then a special program, the monitor, manages the
execution of each program in the batch.
 In early computers, OS was fairly simple
 Major task : transfer control automatically from one
job to the next
 OS was always resident in the memory
 Disadvantanges
 Inthis execution environment, the CPU is often idle
because the speeds of the I/O devices are much slower
than the speed of the CPU.
 User has no direct interaction with the system.
 Waiting time is more for a user/program.
 No mechanism to prioritize processes.
Simple Batch systems – Memory Layout
 Multi Programming system

 Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number of

programs simultaneously by a single processor.
 In multiprogramming, number of processes resides in main
memory at a time.
 The OS picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in
main memory.
 If any I/O wait happened in a process, then CPU switches
from that job to another job.
 Hence in Multiprogramming system, CPU will
never be idle and keeps on processing.
 Ifseveral jobs are ready to run at the same time,
then system chooses which one to run (using CPU
Scheduling).
 Advantages

 Efficient memory utilization

 Throughput increases
 CPU is never idle, so performance increases.
 Waiting time is limited in multiprogramming.
 Disadvantages

 User can not interact directly with the system.

 Time Sharing Systems
 Multiprogramming systems provide an
environment in which various system resources
like CPU, memory, I/O devices were utilized
effectively.
 Does not provide user interaction with the computer
system.
 Timesharing or multitasking is a logical extension
of multiprogramming.
 user interacts with the system.
 Multiple
jobs are executed by switching the
CPU between them
 The switches occur so frequently that users can
interact with each program while it is running
and
 User can assume that he is only working on the
system, but actually CPU is shared among
different users.
 CPU time is shared by different processes - system is
called as time sharing system.
 The CPU scheduler selects a job from the ready queue and
switches the CPU to that job. When the time slot expired,
the CPU switches from this job to another job.
 The time slice is given by the OS for sharing CPU time
between processes.
 Time sharing system uses
 CPU scheduling
 Multiprogramming

 Memory management scheme

 UNIX is a time shared system.
 Advantages

 Themain advantage of time sharing system

over the batch system is,
 the user can interact with the job while it is
executing, but it is not possible in batch
system.
 Efficient CPU utilization
 Disadvantages

 As numbers of users are interacting with the processor

at the same time, it is complex than multiprogrammed
OS.
 System must have memory management and protection,
since several jobs are kept in memory at the same time.
 Disk management is also required.
 Itprovides mechanism for concurrent execution which
requires complex CPU scheduling scheme.
 Multiprocessor System
 Single processor systems have only one CPU, however in
multiprocessor system have more than one processor.
 These systems are also known as parallel systems or
tightly coupled systems.
 Here the processors share
 Computer Bus
 Memory

 Clock

 Peripheral Devices
  
 It is called parallel system, because numbers of
processors are executing their jobs in parallel.
A multiprocessor OS controls and manages hardware and
software resources
 such that user can view the entire system as a
powerful uniprocessor system as he is not aware of
multiprocessor system and interconnection network.
The major issues of Multiprocessor OS
are

 Process synchronization
 Task scheduling
 Memory management
 Security and protection,
 sincemain memory is shared among many physical
processors.
 Multiprocessor systems can be
 Symmetric Multiprocessing System
 Each processor runs an identical copy of the OS and these copies
communicate with one another as needed.
 Asymmetric Multiprocessing Systems
 Each processor is assigned a specific task
 A master processor controls the system, others gets instruction from
master
 Master-Slave relationship
 Master Processor Schedules and allocates work to the slave processors
 Advantages

 Multiprocessor systems have advantages like:

 Increased throughput
 Economy of scale
 Increased reliability
 Distributed Operating System

 Distributed OS are the OS for a network of autonomous

computers, connected by a communication network, that
follows message passing mechanism.
 In this system, processors cannot share memory or clock.
Each processor has its own local memory.
 The processors communicate with one another through
various communication lines such as high speed bus.
 Loosely Coupled Systems
A distributed OS controls and manages the software
and hardware resources of a distributed system.
 When a program is executed on a distributed system,
user is not aware of where the program is executed,
on which location etc..
 Processor in Distributed System varies in
Size and function
 Processors are referred by different names
 Sites
 Nodes
 computers
 The basic design issue of distributed operating
system is:
 Process Synchronization
 Deadlock

 Inter process communication

 Memory Management
 CPU scheduling
 Nearly
all systems today are distributed in
some way i.e.
 They use email
 Access files over a network
 Receive audios and videos etc.
 Examples
of distributed OS are Alpha,
Amoeba, Mach etc.
 Advantages

 Resource sharing
 Computation Speedup
 Reliability
 Communication
 Resource Sharing
 Sharing of files at remote sites
 Processing information in a distributed DB
 Printing files at remote sites
 Computation SpeedUp
 Computation – Partitioned into a number of Sub
computations
 Runs Concurrently
 Ifany site is currently overloaded with jobs, some of
them may be moved to other, lightly loaded sites
 Load Sharing
 Reliability
 If one site fails in a distributed systems, the remaining
sites can continue operating.
 Communication
 Processes at different sites can exchange information
 Real Time Operating System
 Real-time systems is used when there are rigid time
requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of
data.
 Used as a control device in a dedicated application
 Systems that control
 scientific experiment
 Medical imaging systems
 Industrial control systems
 Fuel-injection systems
 Home-Appliances controllers
 Weapon Systems
 defined as those systems in which the correctness of the system depends not
only on the logical result produced, but also the time at which the result
produced.
 User convenience and resource utilization are secondary concern to these
systems.
 Real time systems have many events that must be accepted and processed in
a short time or within certain deadline.
 RTOS – has well-defined constraints or the system
will fail.
 RTSystem is considered to function correctly
only if it returns the correct result within any
time constraints
 Such applications include:
 Rocket lunching
 Flight control
 Robotics
 Telephone switching equipment
 Fire and smoke sensor etc.
 Real time systems are classified into two categories:
 Hard Real Time System
 Soft Real Time System
 Hard Real Time System

 A system is said to be hard real time system if the

deadline is not met the system is said to have failed.
 Examples: : Industrial control applications
 On-board computers
  Robots
 These systems guarantee that critical tasks should be
completed on time.
 Soft Real Time System

 A system is said to be soft real time system, If a deadline

is missed, the system does not fail.
 Only the performance of the system is said to have
degraded.
 The utility of a result decreases with time after the
deadline.
 Examples: Railway reservation system, video on demand
system