Chapter 3 – Block Ciphers and the

Data Encryption Standard

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 Modern Block Ciphers
• will now look at modern block ciphers
• one of the most widely used types of
cryptographic algorithms
• provide secrecy and/or authentication
services
• in particular will introduce DES (Data
Encryption Standard)
• We will look at AES (Advanced Encryption
Standard) adopted in 2001 later 1
 Block vs Stream Ciphers
• block ciphers process messages in into
blocks, each of which is then en/decrypted
• like a substitution on very big characters
– 64-bits or more
• stream ciphers process messages a bit or
byte at a time when en/decrypting
• many current ciphers are block ciphers
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 Block Cipher Principles
• most symmetric block ciphers are based on a
Feistel Cipher Structure
• needed since must be able to decrypt ciphertext
to recover messages efficiently
• block ciphers look like an extremely large
substitution
• would need table of 264 entries for a 64-bit block
• instead create from smaller building blocks
• using idea of a product cipher
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Claude Shannon and Substitution-
Permutation Ciphers
• in 1949 Claude Shannon introduced idea of
substitution-permutation (S-P) networks
– modern substitution-transposition product cipher
• these form the basis of modern block ciphers
• S-P networks are based on the two primitive
cryptographic operations we have seen before:
– substitution (S-box)
– permutation (P-box)
• provide confusion and diffusion of message

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 Confusion and Diffusion
• cipher needs to completely obscure
statistical properties of original message
• a one-time pad does this
• more practically Shannon suggested
combining elements to obtain:
• diffusion – dissipates statistical structure
of plaintext over bulk of ciphertext
• confusion – makes relationship between
ciphertext and key as complex as possible
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 Feistel Cipher Structure
• Horst Feistel devised the feistel cipher
– based on concept of invertible product cipher
• partitions input block into two halves
– process through multiple rounds which
– perform a substitution on left data half
– based on round function of right half & subkey
– then have permutation swapping halves
• implements Shannon’s substitution-
permutation network concept
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Feistel Cipher Structure

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Feistel Cipher Design Principles
• block size
– increasing size improves security, but slows cipher
• key size
– increasing size improves security, makes exhaustive key
searching harder, but may slow cipher
• number of rounds
– increasing number improves security, but slows cipher
• subkey generation
– greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
• round function
– greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
• fast software en/decryption & ease of analysis
– are more recent concerns for practical use and testing

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Feistel Cipher Decryption

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 Data Encryption Standard (DES)
• most widely used block cipher in world for
a long time; will change soon
• adopted in 1977 by NBS (now NIST)
– as FIPS PUB 46
• encrypts 64-bit data using 56-bit key
• has widespread use
• has been considerable controversy over
its security
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 DES History
• IBM developed Lucifer cipher
– by team led by Feistel
– used 64-bit data blocks with 128-bit key
• then redeveloped as a commercial cipher
with input from NSA and others
• in 1973 NBS issued request for proposals
for a national cipher standard
• IBM submitted their revised Lucifer which
was eventually accepted as the DES
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 DES Design Controversy
• although DES standard is public
• was considerable controversy over design
– in choice of 56-bit key (vs Lucifer 128-bit)
– and because design criteria were classified
• subsequent events and public analysis
show in fact design was appropriate
• DES has become widely used, esp in
financial applications
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DES Encryption

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 Initial Permutation IP
• first step of the data computation
• IP reorders the input data bits
• even bits to LH half, odd bits to RH half
• quite regular in structure (easy in h/w)
• example:
IP(675a6967 5e5a6b5a) = (ffb2194d 004df6fb)

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 DES Round Structure
• uses two 32-bit L & R halves
• as for any Feistel cipher can describe as:
Li = Ri–1
Ri = Li–1 xor F(Ri–1, Ki)
• takes 32-bit R half and 48-bit subkey and:
– expands R to 48-bits using perm E
– adds to subkey
– passes through 8 S-boxes to get 32-bit result
– finally permutes this using 32-bit perm P
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DES Round Structure

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 Substitution Boxes S
• have eight S-boxes which map 6 to 4 bits
• each S-box is actually 4 little 4 bit boxes
– outer bits 1 & 6 (row bits) select one rows
– inner bits 2-5 (col bits) are substituted
– result is 8 lots of 4 bits, or 32 bits
• row selection depends on both data & key
– feature known as autoclaving (autokeying)
• example:
S(18 09 12 3d 11 17 38 39) = 5fd25e03
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 DES Key Schedule
• forms subkeys used in each round
• consists of:
– initial permutation of the key (PC1) which
selects 56-bits in two 28-bit halves
– 16 stages consisting of:
• selecting 24-bits from each half
• permuting them by PC2 for use in function f,
• rotating each half separately either 1 or 2 places
depending on the key rotation schedule K

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 DES Decryption
• decrypt must unwind steps of data computation
• with Feistel design, do encryption steps again
• using subkeys in reverse order (SK16 … SK1)
• note that IP undoes final FP step of encryption
• 1st round with SK16 undoes 16th encrypt round
• ….
• 16th round with SK1 undoes 1st encrypt round
• then final FP undoes initial encryption IP
• thus recovering original data value
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 Avalanche Effect
• key desirable property of encryption alg
• where a change of one input or key bit
results in changing approx half output bits
• making attempts to “home-in” by guessing
keys impossible
• DES exhibits strong avalanche

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 Strength of DES – Key Size
• 56-bit keys have 256 = 7.2 x 1016 values
• brute force search looks hard
• recent advances have shown is possible
– in 1997 on Internet in a few months
– in 1998 on dedicated h/w (EFF) in a few days
– in 1999 above combined in 22hrs!
• still must be able to recognize plaintext
• alternative to DES adopted in May 2001
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 Strength of DES – Timing Attacks
• attacks actual implementation of cipher
• use knowledge of consequences of
implementation to derive knowledge of
some/all subkey bits
• specifically use fact that calculations can
take varying times depending on the value
of the inputs to it
• particularly problematic on smartcards
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Strength of DES – Analytic Attacks
• now have several analytic attacks on DES
• these utilise some deep structure of the cipher
– by gathering information about encryptions
– can eventually recover some/all of the sub-key bits
– if necessary then exhaustively search for the rest
• generally these are statistical attacks
• include
– differential cryptanalysis
– linear cryptanalysis
– related key attacks

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 Differential Cryptanalysis
• one of the most significant recent (public)
advances in cryptanalysis
• known by NSA in 70's cf DES design
• Murphy, Biham & Shamir published 1990
• powerful method to analyse block ciphers
• used to analyse most current block ciphers
with varying degrees of success
• DES reasonably resistant to it
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 Differential Cryptanalysis
• a statistical attack against Feistel ciphers
• uses cipher structure not previously used
• design of S-P networks has output of
function f influenced by both input & key
• hence cannot trace values back through
cipher without knowing values of the key
• Differential Cryptanalysis compares two
related pairs of encryptions
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 Differential Cryptanalysis
Compares Pairs of Encryptions
• with a known difference in the input
• searching for a known difference in output
• when same subkeys are used

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 Differential Cryptanalysis
• have some input difference giving some
output difference with probability p
• if find instances of some higher probability
input / output difference pairs occurring
• can infer subkey that was used in round
• then must iterate process over many
rounds (with decreasing probabilities)

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Differential Cryptanalysis

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 Differential Cryptanalysis
• perform attack by repeatedly encrypting plaintext pairs
with known input XOR until obtain desired output XOR
• when found
– if intermediate rounds match required XOR have a right pair
– if not then have a wrong pair, relative ratio is S/N for attack
• can then deduce keys values for the rounds
– right pairs suggest same key bits
– wrong pairs give random values
• for large numbers of rounds, probability is so low that
more pairs are required than exist with 64-bit inputs
• Biham and Shamir have shown how a 13-round iterated
characteristic can break the full 16-round DES
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 Linear Cryptanalysis
• another recent development
• also a statistical method
• must be iterated over rounds, with
decreasing probabilities
• developed by Matsui et al in early 90's
• based on finding linear approximations
• can attack DES with 247 known plaintexts,
still in practise infeasible
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 Linear Cryptanalysis
• Find linear approximations with prob p !=
½
P[i1,i2,...,ia](+)C[j1,j2,...,jb] =
K[k1,k2,...,kc]
where ia,jb,kc are bit locations in P,C,K
• gives linear equation for key bits
• get one key bit using max likelihood alg
• using a large number of trial encryptions
• effectiveness given by: |p–½|
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 Block Cipher Design Principles
• basic principles still like Feistel in 1970’s
• number of rounds
– more is better, exhaustive search best attack
• function f:
– provides “confusion”, is nonlinear, avalanche
• key schedule
– complex subkey creation, key avalanche

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 Modes of Operation
• block ciphers encrypt fixed size blocks
• eg. DES encrypts 64-bit blocks, with 56-bit key
• need way to use in practise, given usually have
arbitrary amount of information to encrypt
• four were defined for DES in ANSI standard
ANSI X3.106-1983 Modes of Use
• have block and stream modes

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 Electronic Codebook Book (ECB)
• message is broken into independent
blocks which are encrypted
• each block is a value which is substituted,
like a codebook, hence name
• each block is encoded independently of
the other blocks
Ci = DESK1 (Pi)
• uses: secure transmission of single values
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Electronic Codebook Book (ECB)

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Advantages and Limitations of ECB
• repetitions in message may show in
ciphertext
– if aligned with message block
– particularly with data such graphics
– or with messages that change very little,
which become a code-book analysis problem
• weakness due to encrypted message
blocks being independent
• main use is sending a few blocks of data
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 Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)
• message is broken into blocks
• but these are linked together in the
encryption operation
• each previous cipher blocks is chained
with current plaintext block, hence name
• use Initial Vector (IV) to start process
Ci = DESK1(Pi XOR Ci-1)
C-1 = IV
• uses: bulk data encryption, authentication
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Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)

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Advantages and Limitations of CBC
• each ciphertext block depends on all message blocks
• thus a change in the message affects all ciphertext
blocks after the change as well as the original block
• need Initial Value (IV) known to sender & receiver
– however if IV is sent in the clear, an attacker can change bits of
the first block, and change IV to compensate
– hence either IV must be a fixed value (as in EFTPOS) or it must
be sent encrypted in ECB mode before rest of message
• at end of message, handle possible last short block
– by padding either with known non-data value (eg nulls)
– or pad last block with count of pad size
• eg. [ b1 b2 b3 0 0 0 0 5] <- 3 data bytes, then 5 bytes pad+count

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 Cipher FeedBack (CFB)
• message is treated as a stream of bits
• added to the output of the block cipher
• result is feed back for next stage (hence name)
• standard allows any number of bit (1,8 or 64 or
whatever) to be feed back
– denoted CFB-1, CFB-8, CFB-64 etc
• is most efficient to use all 64 bits (CFB-64)
Ci = Pi XOR DESK1(Ci-1)
C-1 = IV
• uses: stream data encryption, authentication
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Cipher FeedBack (CFB)

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Advantages and Limitations of CFB
• appropriate when data arrives in bits/bytes
• most common stream mode
• limitation is need to stall while do block
encryption after every n-bits
• note that the block cipher is used in
encryption mode at both ends
• errors propogate for several blocks after
the error
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 Output FeedBack (OFB)
• message is treated as a stream of bits
• output of cipher is added to message
• output is then feed back (hence name)
• feedback is independent of message
• can be computed in advance
Ci = Pi XOR Oi
Oi = DESK1(Oi-1)
O-1 = IV
• uses: stream encryption over noisy channels
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Output FeedBack (OFB)

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Advantages and Limitations of OFB
• used when error feedback a problem or where need to
encryptions before message is available
• superficially similar to CFB
• but feedback is from the output of cipher and is
independent of message
• a variation of a Vernam cipher
– hence must never reuse the same sequence (key+IV)
• sender and receiver must remain in sync, and some
recovery method is needed to ensure this occurs
• originally specified with m-bit feedback in the standards
• subsequent research has shown that only OFB-64
should ever be used
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 Summary
• have considered:
• block cipher design principles
• DES
– details
– strength
• Differential & Linear Cryptanalysis
• Modes of Operation
– ECB, CBC, CFB, OFB