ACOM 221: MEDIA STUDIES 1B

MEDIA, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

PART ONE

MEDIA AND THE SOCIAL WORLD

Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 1
 WHAT IS THE “MASS MEDIA”?

The term “mass media” refers to

print and electronic means of mass

communication that carry messages

to widespread audiences.
The communication media are the
different technological processes that
facilitate communication between (and
are in the “middle” of) the sender of a
message and the receiver of that
message.
 MEDIA AND THE SOCIAL WORLD
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 1

Everyday we are bombarded with messages from mass

media –television, radio, newspapers, and the internet.

In fact, in modern society, most of our knowledge,

understanding, and interpretations of the world are

mediated through mass media.

These media have profound cognitive, emotional, and

interactional effects on individuals, institutions, and

societies.
At the same time, individuals and

institutions are instrumental in shaping the

nature and character of the mass media.

With the pervasiveness of the media,

communication scholars have conducted

numerous studies to examine the effects of

media on audience and society.

Studies of mass media have
demonstrated that the media can be quite
influential in a number of ways, such as
shaping public opinion, setting the agenda,
cultivating salience, fostering learning and
reinforcing the spiral of silence.
FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE OF THE MEDIA

According to this perspective the mass

media performs FOUR FUNCTIONS in society:

1.Surveillance of the environment: through

the provision of news and information.

2.Correlation: correlating response to news

and information (editorial function); The

media coordinate and correlate information

that is valuable to the culture.

3. Cultural transmission: The media are powerful

agents of socialization. Through the media,

cultural norms and values are communicated to

the masses.

4. Entertainment: (diversion function). By providing

entertainment, the media act as stress relievers

for members of society, which keeps social

conflicts to a minimum.
 RISE OF MASS MEDIA
Social Construction of Reality
–While reality exists, media users negotiate the
meaning of that reality
–The same media product may mean very
different things to different people
–Example: A music video may elicit different
responses from a 15-year old fan and a parent
concerned about sexist stereotypes that may
be present in the video
Printing technology began in the 15th century
–Invention of the printing press promoted
literacy in Europe
Early 17th century – first newspapers in
Europe
19th century invention of telegraph and
telephone allowed instantaneous
communication over long distances
In the early 20th century radio became the
first broadcast media , followed by TV in
the 1940s and 50s
The development of broadcasting
fundamentally altered life –
communicators could cast their messages
broadly to the masses in their homes
–The media experience became largely
privatized and individualized even as
people were becoming “massified” by
mass mediated homogenized messages
about beauty and even identity itself
RISE OF INTERNET AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES

Recent technologies resulted in a move away

from the mass broadcast audience toward

smaller, more specialized niche populations

–Narrowcasting

The distinction between separate media

forms is now blurred

Increased interactivity between media users

and contents
 MEDIA AND SOCIETY

The commercial mass media serve

as a powerful socialization agent
–It aims particularly at children and youth
–It’s messages often contradict the parent
–It normalizes a way of life based on
privatization, individualism, capitalist
materialism, hedonism, ageism, sexism,
and status-conscious consumerism
–It introduces us to new and creative
messages and perspectives
–It asks people to accept the “normalcy”
of constant rapid social change
 MEDIA IN SOCIAL RELATIONS

Media are bound up with the process of

social relations
–Media affect how we learn about our world

and interact with each other

Example: Our political system is now mass-

mediated by a commercial media that

charges hefty fees for political messages.

The result is a bias toward the political
viewpoints of the rich and their well-
financed politicians.
Media products are connected to the
ways we interact with others
 STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINT AND HUMAN
AGENCY

STRUCTURE
–Any recurring pattern of social behavior
–Example: family structure
–Structure limits human agency

AGENCY
–Intentional and undetermined human action
–Example: children in the family
–Structure limits agency, but agency can reproduce or
change the structure
 STRUCTURE AND AGENCY IN MEDIA

Relationships Between Media & Other

Institutions
–Other social institutions set limits on the media

Relationships Within the Media Industry

–Internal workings of mass media – social roles and
practices

Relationships Between the Media and the

Public
–Media content affects public perceptions
 PART TWO: PRODUCTION

THE MEDIA INDUSTRY AND THE

SOCIAL WORLD
 THE ECONOMICS OF THE MEDIA INDUSTRY Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 2

Media industries are in general profit-oriented.

–Profit concerns dominate considerations about
content and policy.
–Like other capitalist institutions, the media always
serves the private interest.
–The capitalist media content and its policies - may
or may not serve the larger public interest.
Generally the capitalist media is very entertaining,
but not very informative.
 CHANGING PATTERNS OF MEDIA OWNERSHIP

Ownership is an important issue.

–Democratic societies require an informed
citizenry, and we rely upon the media to help
inform citizens about policies and platforms.
–Whoever owns a specific media controls the
content of that media.
Owners are not all of one mind, so it is too simplistic to
see Big Media as a conspiracy of like-minded powerful
owners.
CONGLOMERATION AND INTEGRATION IN THE
MEDIA

Conglomeration: this is when media

firms become involved in a variety of
diverse business activities.
 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL INTEGRATION

Vertical Integration: Cross-industry ownership, or the

degree a to which a single firm owns its upstream suppliers
and its downstream buyers. Here one firm engages in different
aspects of the process, from production to distribution. Eg: a
firm hires an artist, records them, distributes them on stations
they own and features them in clubs they own.

Horizontal Integration: Consolidation of many firms that

handle the same part of a production process. When a firm
buys out other firms doing the same thing, it is seeking
horizontal integration. It seeks to increase its share of the
market.
 CONSEQUENCES OF CONGLOMERATION AND
INTEGRATION

1. HOMOGENIZATION.
–Today there are fewer and fewer locally
owned radio and TV stations.
–There has been an erosion of local culture as
national chain-media emphasize non-local
content.
–Homogenization threatens cultural diversity.
 THE HOMOGENIZATION HYPOTHESIS

This thesis argues that concentration leads to a

lack of diversity in content.
Research reveals that, while generally true, it
depends on the specific industry:
–In the newspaper industry, increased concentration does
not appear to change content very much.
–This is because newspapers have been concentrated
since the early 20th century and they’ve standardized
content: a front page, a sports page, a lifestyle page, etc,
with editorializing relegated to a page or two.
2. HIGHER PROFITS FOR BIG MEDIA.
–Stockholders benefit from conglomeration, but the public
doesn’t.

3. HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION.
–The loss of independence between films, TV, and music
means the same artist we see in the movies may also show
up on an album. Or visa versa. They will be cross-promoted,
guaranteeing success even if they aren’t very good. Example:
Britney Spears.
–This also means “the look” matters. In the age of MTV,
musical artists who don’t look good generally don’t get
promoted.
4. VERTICAL INTEGRATION.
When the same firm that produces a musical
artist also distributes the artist, it virtually
guarantees they will sell. Ex: Britney Spears.

5. A SHIFT TO THE RIGHT, IDEOLOGICALLY.

While anti-establishment content is sometimes

allowed – as long as it is profitable – Big Media

prefers artists who are friendly to their agenda,

and this agenda leans to the middle and right.

6. CORPORATE SELF-CENSORSHIP HAS INCREASED.

News that challenges the legitimacy of capitalism or the policies

of private corporations is more likely to be censored by

corporate media.

7. WITH CONCENTRATION, THE PUBLIC GETS LOCKED OUT OF

PARTICIPATION.
–Today, freedom of the press is limited to those who can afford to

own radio and TV stations – the millionaires and their

corporations.

–Media corporations routinely use the rhetoric of freedom at

the same time that media oligopoly serves to reduce choices.

 MEDIA CONTROL AND POLITICAL POWER

Can the concentration of media undermine

political system?
Yes. Corporate Media routinely lobbies and
“donates” funds to politicians in exchange
for favorable treatment.
Many politicians are afraid to be openly critical of
Corporate Media policies because they have become
dependant on their “donations” to get re-elected.
 CORPORATE CENSORSHIP

It is ironic that most discussion of censorship and

free speech focuses on government censorship, not
corporate censorship.
–Most media censorship is corporate censorship. It
is self-censorship.
–Corporations are reluctant to publish news that
reflects badly upon themselves.
Corporations use Public Relations firms to “spin”
the truth – a version of censorship.
 PROFIT AND THE NEWS MEDIA

Capitalist media focus on one specific goal:

financial profit.
–News divisions are typically not as profitable

as Entertainment divisions.
Therefore, under pressure to increase profits,

news policies have shifted in recent years to

increase corporate profits.

 RECENT CHANGES IN CORPORATE NEWS

Corporate news programs have found

numerous ways to increase profits:
1. Less investigative reporting.
2. Use fewer news sources.
3. Decreased news staffs.
4. Make the news more entertaining.
More emphasize on “if it bleeds, it leads.”
5. Focus on sensational or tabloid news stories
6. Include “soft” human interest stories that
reassure audiences with their “happy endings.”
Use upbeat styles.
7. Hire personalities rather than real journalists
to deliver the news. Place emphasis on these
news personalities as celebrities to worship.
8. Eliminate the news altogether and play re-
runs of former hit shows.
 ADVERTISING AND THE PRESS
The press won their freedom from
government and party control as they shifted
to an advertising-driven press.
–This view claimed they achieved economic
independence, allowing them to become
“watchdogs” or “the fourth estate.” e.g. The
press should monitor the full range of state
activity and fearlessly exposé abuses of
official authority.
However, this argument obscures how

advertising led to new forms of self-censorship.

An advertiser-driven press is not a free press. It

is beholden to the advertisers’ interests in order

to sustain revenue.
To the extent the working class press criticized

capitalism, advertisers withdrew support and

gave it to the more conservative press.

–Ultimately, the ad-driven press led to:
the decline of the radical ideology press;
the emergence of a press inclined toward
non-ideological coverage, such as lifestyle
pages;
more “balanced” coverage of events in
order not to offend paying consumers.
 MARKET INFLUENCES ON JOURNALISM

Advertising driven, mostly. Therefore, it is

biased toward capitalist values. Most
content is ads.
–Radical ideology is almost totally censored.
Prefers safe or soft content that is non-
ideological over hard or controversial
content. Hence lots of sports, leisure
lifestyles, local news, tabloid, etc.
–Relegates politics and (controversial)

editorializing to the back page(s).

Tries to present relatively balanced

coverage in order not to offend different

constituencies.
 ADVERTISING AND NEWS

Advertising exerts pressure on the news

media to:
–Avoid upsetting the sponsors, who are
typically major capitalist corporations.
–Use safe stories that won’t rock the boat.
–Present a world view consistent with that
of the advertisers.
Utilize subtle reassurance messages that the

status quo is just and orderly.

Self-censorship – no direct criticism of

capitalism is expected.
The news beat is biased toward the powerful

– especially capitalists – at the expense of

balance.
 POLITICAL INFLUENCE ON MEDIA
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 3
The state is part of a system of news
production
The state is a key part of the process by which
the very idea of ‘information’ is constructed.
The state establishes the forms of
communication that operate within its
territorial borders and regulate the content of
those systems
At one level, the state is responsible for

creating the market value of knowledge. E.g.

copyright laws construct a regime of rights

around certain forms of knowledge or

expression.
The laws of libel can be viewed in a similar.

The ostensible purpose of these laws is to

mark out areas which are protected from

journalistic intrusion.
 COPYRIGHT AND LIBEL LAWS

These laws like many other laws help to construct

the resources with which the mass media deal.

The state, in this sense, constitutes the raw

material which the mass media the process. But the

state does more than produce the crude oil of

publication, it also help to create the refinery.

All forms of mass communication exist within the

framework of law, regulations and rights.

 MEDIA REGULATION DEBATES

Debates regarding media regulation

reflect competing interests.
The media industry promotes its interests
through a well-organized and powerful
political arm that—along with individual
media corporations— finances political
candidates and lobbies elected officials.
It is safe to assume that such efforts are
aimed at promoting legislation in which
the industry has an interest and at
derailing efforts it deems threatening.
Politicians courting favourable media
coverage for re-election are likely to be
highly conscious of legislation that can
affect the media industry.
 THE “PUBLIC INTEREST” AND THE
REGULATION DEBATE

Supporters of some deregulation

generally assert that the “free-market”
system is adequate for accommodating
the needs of both media producers and
media consumers.
They argue that consumers have the ultimate

power to choose to tune into or buy media

products and that there is no need for

government interference in the form of media

regulation.
The marketplace serves as a quasi democratic

forum in which consumers, not government

agencies, get to decide the fate of media.

In contrast to the deregulation

approach, support for media regulation is

usually based on a desired outcome.

The most common standard for
assessing this outcome is the “public

interest.”
 WHAT IS THE “PUBLIC INTEREST”?

Diversity: the range of views and

experiences present in society
Innovation and creativity in content and
medium
Substance: importance and depth of
coverage
Independence / decentralization
 REGULATING MEDIA CONTENT AND
DISTRIBUTION

While the regulation of the ownership and

control of media outlets, programming, and
technology raises basic questions about the
relationship between government and media, a
different set of issues is raised with respect to
the regulation of media content.
However, the basic dynamic of structure and
agency remains.
 REGULATING FOR MORALITY

According to Dole (1995), “One of the greatest

threats to family values is the way our popular

culture ridicules them. Our music, movies,

television and advertising regularly push the

limits of decency, bombarding our children

with destructive messages of casual violence

and even more casual sex.”

 RATINGS AND WARNINGS

One way content is regulated is by

industry self-regulation, rather than

formal government involvement.

The rating and warning systems devised

for different media fall into this category

OUTLAWING AND CONTROLLING DISTRIBUTION

The suggestion that stores should not sell recordings

with explicit lyrics to minors is an example of a more

active approach to regulating the media industry for

its moral content.

 It is an approach most often associated with

obscene material. Obscene material is different from

both pornography, or sexually arousing material, and

indecent material, or material morally unfit for

general distribution or broadcast.

Pornography and indecent material are legal,

although the government may regulate their

broadcast or distribution.
The government outlaws only obscene material.

(The major exception is that the government

also outlaws sexually explicit materials

involving children, regardless of whether it

judges such material to be obscene.)

 THE CASE OF PORNOGRAPHY

Pornography is defined as display of

explicit, sexual nudity or activity, where

the display is the end in itself rather than

a means to a different end.

Some commentators argue that

‘pornography incites and causes sexual

violence.
The UN Committee on the Elimination of
all forms of Discrimination Against
Women has argued that ‘pornography
and the depiction and commercial
exploitation of women as sexual objects
contribute to gender-based violence’.
In certain circumstances, there are grounds to
believe that the production of pornography
causes harm when the pornographic material
depicts a criminal act.
There is a very broad consensus that the main
objective of the laws regulating pornography
should aim at protecting members of public
from nuisance of offensive material in places to
which normal life happens to take them.
 THE ISSUE OF VIOLENCE

Violence in the media is another area of

content regulation that has received a great

deal of attention
Violence on television is usually at the center

of this debate because it is so accessible to

children.
An enormous amount of research studies has

been done on the effects of media violence.

Some researchers contend that for

some children, violent programming can

lead to more violent behaviour

(aggressor effect), increased fearfulness

about violence (victim effect), or

increased callousness about violence

directed at others (bystander effect).

Although various studies showed different

degrees of influence, there is “a positive and

significant correlation between television

violence and aggressive behaviour.”

Producers of violent media products often

argue that they are merely reflecting the

violence that already exists in society.

However, polls repeatedly show that
most people believe violence in the mass
media contributes to violence in society.
As a result, there has been fairly
widespread popular support for the
regulation of violent programming,
especially on television.
 REGULATING FOR ACCURACY: ADVERTISING

Another area of content regulation worth

noting is regulation that affects advertising.
A number of different agencies regulate
the advertising industry because of its
broad and varied commercial dimensions,
which encompass all forms of mass
communication.
The collection of regulatory agencies addresses

two basic concerns.

First, the agencies protect the public against

fraudulent or deceptive advertising.

The second major area in which government

regulations affect advertising involves ads

featuring potentially dangerous products,

especially when the ads are targeted at children

and minors.
Thus, the government regulates
advertising for products such as alcohol
and tobacco. Cigarettes, for example,
cannot be advertised on television.
 REGULATING IN THE “NATIONAL INTEREST”:
MEDIA AND THE MILITARY

The relationship between the news media and

the military has been an evolving one.

The natural tension which exist between an

institution which depends on the secrecy of plans

and operations designed to protect the country

from foreign enemies and another which is given

special constitutional protection in order to be

free to call attention

to tyranny and which endeavours to
expose all manners of operations
engaged in by any arm of government is
most intense during times of conflict.
The are uncontroversial example where
press freedom causes a clear and
present danger to national security.
Revelations about military secrets and

counter-intelligence work could directly

endanger lives and would be irrecoverable

after disclosure.
The right to freedom of expression/ press may,

therefore, legitimately be limited to allow prior

restraint on the ground of ‘national security’

CONSTITUTIONAL GUARANTEE OF FREEDOM OF
EXPRESSION IN SOUTH AFRICA (SECTION 16)

The law state that: Everyone has the right to

freedom of expression, which includes-

(a) freedom of the press and other media;

(b)freedom to receive or impart information or ideas;

(c) freedom of artistic creativity; and

(d) academic freedom and freedom of scientific

research.
 LIMITATION OF FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION

The right in subsection (1) does not extend

to-
(a) propaganda for war;
(b) incitement of imminent violence; or
(c) advocacy of hatred that is based on
race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that
constitutes incitement to cause harm.
MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF THE SOCIAL WORLD

PART THREE: CONTENT

 THE NEWS MEDIA AND JOURNALISTIC FIELD
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 4

In this part we explore how professionals create

media products, the ways in which media work is

organized, the norms and practices of several

media professions, the social and personal

networks that media professionals cultivate, and

the ways the organizational structure of media

outlets shape the methods of media work.

 THE LIMITS OF ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
CONSTRAINTS

Economic and political forces can be

powerful constraints.
Media personnel actively respond to these
constraints when making decisions, often
limiting their impact.
 WORKING WITHIN ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS

Economic forces identify the goals and shape the

terrain of the decision-making process, but human
actors must assess both program and audience in
their effort to deliver the “correct” product.
They adopt certain rules or conventions to
smooth out and routinize the decision-making
process.
 RESPONDING TO POLITICAL CONSTRAINTS

Political forces, particularly government

regulations, also play a significant role in shaping
the environment within which media organizations
operate.
Sometimes media organizations comply with
government regulations, but sometimes the media
preempt, ignore, reinterpret, or challenge
regulations.
Compliance is the easiest strategy for media

organizations because it avoids conflict with

regulators, thereby enabling them to shape the

actions of media organizations.

A second strategy used by the media in dealing

with government regulation is preemption. Media

industries can preempt external regulation by

engaging in a public form of self-regulation.

A third often-used strategy is rooted in the

fact that government regulations are almost

always subject to interpretation, giving media

organizations the power to read regulations in

ways that match their broader agendas.

Fourth, media industries can simply ignore

regulations. Passing laws is one thing, but

enforcing regulations is another.

 Finally, media organizations can challenge
regulations to try to alter them or rescind
them altogether. Media organizations can
adopt legal strategies, challenging the
constitutionality of specific regulations, or
they can use political strategies, lobbying
potentially supportive politicians and
threatening opponents in an effort to win new
legislation more to the liking of the industry.
 THE ORGANIZATION OF MEDIA WORK

In a classic study, sociologist Howard

Becker (1982) observes that “producing art
requires elaborate cooperation among
specialized personnel”.
Some researchers have argued that the
behaviour of media personnel is shaped by
the “needs” of an organization (Epstein
1973).
In other words, maintaining the existence
of the organization points different
individuals within that organization in the
same direction.
NEWS ROUTINES AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES

News is information about recent important events.

The processes of news gathering and news

reporting is rationalized because news

organizations cannot start afresh each day.

In other words, news organizations must be able to

anticipate where news will happen—before it

happens—and structure their reporters’

assignments accordingly.
Within news organizations, reporters

follow routines that tell them where to look

for news and how to gather it efficiently.

WHAT ARE THESE JOURNALISTIC ROUTINES?

News outlets cannot report on all the

things that happen; only some
“happenings” are defined as important
enough to be news.
Tuchman (1978) adopts the metaphor
of the “news net” to explain the
standard practice for gathering news.
News organizations cast a ”net”— made up

of wire services, full-time reporters, and

stringers— to catch newsworthy happenings.

The “net”, however, does not catch

everything; like all nets, it is full of holes and

catches only the “big fish.”

The netlike nature of news gathering serves as

an initial filter, sorting out those happenings

that do not meet the standard criteria for news.

The organization of news gathering shows

which criteria determine how the news net is

constructed.
Newspapers will have staff or bureaus in

places they define as important.

News organizations also establish “beats” at

prominent organizations where news can be

expected to occur.
In practice, this means that a series of

official locations —police stations, court-

houses, city halls, state houses, Parliament—

become sites where reporters are stationed.

The news we get needs to be understood as the

end result of these professional routines, which

generally focus on the activities of legitimate,

bureaucratic institutions.
Finally, areas such as sports, business, and the

arts are topical beats that are expected to

produce news each day, so reporters establish

relationships with key players in these areas to

guarantee a regular supply of news.

 THE ROLE OF NEWS WIRE SERVICES

A news agency is a news organization

designed to supply news reports to other media

outlets that subscribe to its services.

News agencies can be considered the

backbone of modern journalism.

They scout and produce the news that we read

daily in newspapers and watch on television.

They are the fundamental source of
reporting on national and international news
for the large majority of local and regional
media outlets, which largely reproduce or
rebroadcast news agency products.
As a result, news agencies have a
significant impact on the selection of what
constitutes relevant news.
But like all newsgathering
organizations, news agencies
themselves follow standardized news
routines, and staff-recognized beats that
ensure they produce sufficient material
to supply to subscribing news outlets.
 SELECTING FRONT-PAGE STORIES

Selecting news for the front page is

shaped by economic constraints and the
organization of news gathering.
Front-page assessments are not
haphazard but are governed by norms that
routinize potentially conflict-ridden daily
decision.
One way to identify these norms is to list
the specific criteria that make a story
front-page material, such as timeliness,
impact, geographic or social proximity,
the prominence.
 THE CONCEPT OF OBJECTIVITY

The belief in objectivity is a faith in

‘facts,’ a distrust of ‘values,’ and a

commitment to their segregation.

Objectivity can be seen as a set of

practices or conventions that the

professional journalist is trained to follow.

 WHAT PRACTICES MAKE UP THIS METHOD?

(1)maintaining political neutrality;

(2) observing prevailing standards of decency and

good taste;

(3) using documentary reporting practices, which

rely on physical evidence;

(4) using standardized formats to package the news;

(5) training reporters as generalists instead of

specialists; and

(6) using editorial review to enforce these methods.

 OBJECTIVITY AS ROUTINE PRACTICES

News accounts have a tendency to look

similar because all reporters follow the same

basic routines.
They talk to the same people, use the same

formats, observe the same basic dos and

don’ts, and watch one another closely to

make sure that they are not out of step with

the rest of the profession.

 THE POLITICAL CONSEQUENCES OF
OBJECTIVITY

News-gathering structure includes certain

happenings as news and excludes others.

In particular, things that happen in and around

established institutions, especially official

agencies, are defined as news.

Happenings outside of these boundaries are

likely never to be detected by professional

journalists.
News, therefore, is the product of a social
process through which media personnel
make decisions about what is newsworthy
and what is not, about who is important
and who is not, about what views are to be
included and what views can be dismissed.
None of these decisions can be entirely
objective.
The ideal of objectivity—separating values from

facts— is ultimately unobtainable.

The reliance on “appropriate,” available, and

preferably authoritative sources means

journalists mostly talk to government and

corporate officials and end up reproducing their

view of the world.

Thus, “objective” journalism, by highlighting the

views and activities of officials, can be seen on

balance to favour those in power.

 MEDIA AND IDEOLOGY
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 5:
What Is Ideology?
“Ideology,” means the belief systems that

help justify the actions of those in power

by distorting and misrepresenting reality.

Ideology is related to concepts such as

worldview, belief system, and values.

 IDEOLOGY

There are numerous ideologies used to explain

and justify specific social relationships: sexism,
feminism, racism, egalitarianism, capitalism,
communism, individualism, collectivism,
classism, etc.
Ideologies are inherently political. They justify
how power should be allocated and which
groups, if any, deserve more power than others.
 DOMINANT IDEOLOGY

Within any society, some ideologies will

be more widespread or dominant than
others.
The dominant ideologies are those that
are most accepted and visible in
mainstream society.
Dominant ideology stems mainly from
elites.
They have the most power to spread their

world views and to censor alternative or

competing ideologies.
Dominant ideology tends to be taken for

granted by members of society as the “normal”

way to view people.

Dominant ideology is rarely challenged. It

tends to be accepted as Truth.

 MEDIA AND DOMINANT IDEOLOGY

Most corporate media producers argue that their

images are merely reflections of our society, and that

they are not purveyors of an ideology.

This argument is inaccurate. By selecting some images

and ideologies over others, they cannot help but

promote specific world views at the expense of others.

The media are at the center of modern culture wars

over how various categories of people should be

portrayed.
 THEORETICAL ROOTS OF IDEOLOGICAL
ANALYSIS

The major strain of research within this

critical perspective may be loosely termed a

Marxist tradition, which regards society as

rooted in conflict along class lines between

dominant and subordinate groups.

The major effect of the media is considered

ideological.
The point of departure from the

pluralist view is the following famous

quote from Marx: “the ideas of the ruling

class are in every epoch the ruling

ideas: i.e., the class which is the ruling

material force in society is at the same

time its ruling intellectual force”.

The class which has the means of material

production at its disposal has control at the same

time over the means of mental production, so that

thereby, generally speaking, the ideas of those who

lack the means of mental production are subject to it.

"The role of the media here is that of legitimation

through the production of false consciousness, in the

interests of the class which owns and controls the

media"
 NEWS MEDIA AND THE LIMITS OF DEBATE

The news media produce ideological visions of

the nation and the world.

The news focuses on powerful people and

institutions and generally reflects established

interests.
The news supports the social order of public,

business and professional, upper-middle-class,

middle-aged, and white male sectors of society.

The news pays most attention to and
upholds the actions of elite individuals and
elite institutions. With its focus on elites,
news presents images of the world that are
significantly lacking in diversity.
The “insider” nature of political news
means that a small group of analysts are
regular commentators and news sources.
The “debates” we see in the news, therefore, are

often between insiders who share a common

commitment to traditional politics, to the exclusion

of those outside the constructed consensus.

The result is that contrasting perspectives in the

news frequently represent the differences—

generally quite narrow—between establishment

insiders.
This approach to the news does little to inform
the public of positions outside this limited
range of opinion.
More important, it implicitly denies that other
positions should be taken seriously.
 Ultimately, one principal way the news is
ideological is in drawing boundaries between
what is acceptable—the conventional ideas of
insiders—and what is not.
ECONOMIC NEWS AS IDEOLOGICAL CONSTRUCT

The capitalist media rarely portray

corporate takeovers and mergers as a

“social problem.”
Instead, they often let the corporate

executives define the meaning of their own

behavior.
–The executive will typically call it healthy

progress, despite the fact that it is harmful to

competition, consumers, and workers.

Similarly a workers strike is often portrayed

through the lens of the corporate executive

more than the strikers. The striker is often

branded a trouble maker.

 MOVIES, THE MILITARY, AND MASCULINITY

Two film genres, action-adventure and military/war films

are worth exploring for their underlying ideological

orientation because of their popularity.

With action-adventure movies such as Raiders of the

Lost Ark and Romancing the Stone and military movies

such as Rambo and Top Gun attracting large audiences—

and inspiring sequels and seemingly endless imitators—

scholars have used an ideological framework to

understand the underlying messages in these films.

 ACTION-ADVENTURE FILMS

 These are stories about good and evil –

heroes and villains.
One underlying theme of the action-
adventure genre is the drawing of rigid lines
between “us” and “them,” with the villain
representing the dangers of difference.
–The hero typically represents the forces of

civility and goodness, while the bad guy

represents uncivilized, debased society.

Ultimately the hero kills or domesticates the

bad guy, restoring security.

 VIETNAM FILMS

In essence, these films provide a mass-mediated

refighting of the war, in which Americans are both the

good guys and the victors.

The films serve as a kind of redemption for a country

unable to accept defeat in Vietnam and still struggling

with the shame of loss.

In these stories, there is no longer shame or defeat

but instead pride, triumph, and a reaffirmation of

national strength.
The masculine/military films of the time both

reflected the fears and desires of American men

and helped reproduce a new brand of toughness.

The films were part of a political culture that

created the conditions for the popular 1989

invasion of Panama and the even more popular

1991 war in the Persian Gulf.

 TELEVISION, POPULARITY, AND IDEOLOGY

TV is central to our mass mediated culture.

TV mediates reality in seemingly realistic
images, but they are not that realistic.
–Because most TV seems real, the viewer
routinely suspends disbelief.
The ideological work of TV lies in the ways it
defines normalcy.
–Portrayals of sex, race, class, age, etc
generally reinforce dominant ideologies
TV producers have adopted the strategy of
“least objectionable programming.”
–Programs are intended to avoid
controversy and remain politically bland in
order to please sponsors and gain the
widest array of viewers.
–The result has been an emphasis on
stereotypes (i.e. simplistic generalizations
about different categories of people).
–They tend to emerge from dominant groups to
affirm dominant ideology. The dominant ideology
reassures people that the system works.
–They are not true, but are believed because they
are taken for granted as “common knowledge.”
–TV ideology is mostly determined by the strategy of
using conventional images, dominant ideologies, and
stereotypes as the backdrop to most programs.
-Television ideology is mostly determined by
the strategy of using conventional images,
dominant ideologies, and stereotypes as the
backdrop to most programs.
–Hence, television “normalcy” is
disproportionately White, Male, Upper
middle class (affluent), Relatively young,
Trim and fit, Eurocentric definition of beauty
This approach is, itself, ideological; blandness

favours certain images and stories and pushes

others to the margins or off the air entirely.

In striving for popularity, the television

producers have often adopted the strategy of

“least objectionable programming,” whereby

programs are intended to avoid controversy and

remain politically bland.

 RAP MUSIC AS IDEOLOGICAL CRITIQUE?

According to Tricia Rose, rap music should be

understood as a mass mediated criticism of the
dominant ideology of racism within the power
structure.
Rap criticizes traditional institutions like the
police, the justice system, education and the
job system because these systems are seen as
oppressive to blacks and the goal of equality.
Rose argues that much rap music rejects
dominant ideological assumptions.
–Rap affirms the experiences of inner city black
youth while criticizing the social institutions
that contribute to their ghettoization.
–Rap music has been empowering to black youth
by providing them a way to express themselves
and their critical ideologies.
Yet at the same time, rap is full of ideological

contradictions. While some rap challenges

racism, the lyrics and imagery are often

misogynistic, depicting women in degrading

ways.
Thus rap music may challenge some oppressive

dominant ideologies (racism) while affirming

other oppressive dominant ideologies (sexism).

 ADVERTISING AND CONSUMER CULTURE

What kinds of stories do advertisements tell

about ourselves and our society? Certainly,

on one level, ads are specific to their product

or service. They tell us that

1.if we drink a particular brand of beer, we will

meet attractive women;

2.if we wear the right makeup, we will meet

handsome men;
3. if we purchase a certain automobile, we will gain

prestige;

4. if we use specific cleansers, we will save time;

and

5. if we wear certain clothes, we will find adventure.

6. Ads may also tell us that a particular item will

save us money, that a specific service will make us

healthier, or that a new product will make a great

gift for a loved one.

Despite the diversity of advertising messages and

their frequent use of irony and humour, there is an

underlying commonality to almost alladvertisements:

They are fundamentally about selling.

They address their audiences as consumers and

celebrate and take for granted the consumer

capitalist organization of society.

This perspective is, of course, decidedly ideological.
Ads tell us that happiness and satisfaction can
be purchased, that each of us is first and
foremost an individual consumption unit, and that
market relations of buying and selling are the
appropriate—perhaps the only—form of social
relations outside the intimacy of the family.
Our culture of consumption, then, is intimately
connected to advertising, which helped create it
and continues, in new forms, to sustain
consumerism as a central part of contemporary
ideology.
 WOMEN’S MAGAZINES AS ADVERTISEMENTS

The “women’s magazine” is one medium that is

particularly advertising oriented and consistently

promotes the ideology of consumerism.

The magazines promote the consumer lifestyle

by showing how beauty, sexuality, career

success, culinary skill, and social status can be

bought in the consumer marketplace.

Social problems, from the standpoint of
consumer ideology, are redefined as
personal problems that can be solved by
purchasing the appropriate product.
In addressing a specific social group,
women’s magazines, identify women as a
consumption category with special
product needs.
Women’s magazines use both direct and
covert advertising to sell magazines and
promote an ideology that celebrates the
consumption of gender-specific products
as a means to identity formation and
personal satisfaction
 ADVERTISING AND THE GLOBALIZATION OF
CULTURE

The dreams that advertisements sell within the

United States are also exported all around the

globe.
The images on global display, like much

domestic advertising, are about dreams. America

is portrayed as a kind of dreamland where

individuals can fulfil (or buy?) their desires.

The images of the dreamland do not require a rigid

uniformity, because central to the ideology on

display are the notions of individuality and

freedom, which merge into the concept of

consumer choice.
The world portrayed in television programs such

as MTV displays images of attractive people living

comfortable lives surrounded by contemporary

consumer goods.
Both advertisements and entertainment media

promote a commitment to the latest styles—for

example, in clothes, cars, leisure activities,

and food— that requires continuous

consumption to keep up with stylistic changes.

The focus on style is directed particularly at

youth, who are increasingly the most coveted

market and who are particularly avid media

users.
The international advertising, television,
and music scenes have helped generate
an emerging cross-national, global youth
culture in which teens in different
countries adopt similar styles in clothes
and appearance; consume the same soda,
cigarettes, and fast food; and listen to
and play the same kind of music.
The international teen market may
cross national boundaries, but, with the
help of American media products, youth
style is based to a great degree on
American images and consumer goods.
 MEDIA IMAGES AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF REALITY
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 6

The mainstream media do not reflect the

social diversity that characterizes our
society.
To a certain extent, the mainstream
media present images that are
consistent with stereotypes and the
dominant ideological portrayal of society.
This is at the cost of women, people of color, the
poor, and others who have been historically
marginalized in our society.
It is unrealistic to expect the media to accurately
mirror the real world, because the media can only
feature representations of that world, and these
images involve at least some filtering.
But there is great significance in how the media
portray the world, because these portrayals
influence our perceptions of the real world.
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF CONTENT

1. As a reflection of media producers and

their ideologies.
2. As a reflection of audience preferences
and desires.
3. As a reflection of society in general,
including social norms, beliefs and values.
4. The way media content influences
audiences and our society.
5. Content as self-enclosed text whose
meaning is to be de-coded on its own terms,
independent of society and audiences.
 RACE AND MEDIA CONTENT

Race is a socially constructed category

whose meaning varies across time. There
is no biologically valid difference in the
genetic makeup of different “races.”
–Nevertheless, perceived racial
distinctions have powerful social meaning
with profound real-world consequences.
Historically, the media have taken “whites”
to be the norm against which all other racial
categories are compared.“White” is normalcy.
For example, we speak of “the black
community” when referring to blacks, but we
do not say “the white community” when
referring to whites.
–Using terms like “the black community” or “the
black man” signifies race as an important trait
to notice – it is a racial signifier.
–Racial and gender signifiers are common in the
media, and highlight how we call attention to
our differences, thus providing covert fuel for
racism and sexism.
Historically when racial minorities have been

portrayed in the media they have been

stereotyped into such roles as the Black

mammy, the Black coon, etc

–These stereotypes are the product of whites

and their dominant ideology of white racism.

–They bear little resemblance to the real

world.
 HISTORICAL FORMS OF RACISM

Historically, society has gone through

several phases of racist ideology.

1640-1865: The capitalist version of slavery

(extremely harsh) brought intense versions

of paternalistic racism to justify the

complete colonization and de-humanization

of blacks.
Paternalistic racists viewed blacks as
simple minded, lazy, ugly, happy servants
who were perhaps even likeable (as long as
they were obedient and knew their place).
In this view, slaves “needed” to be put to
work in order to be productive, but could
only do menial work.
1865-1920s: violent racism emerged, especially
in the South, to contain newly freed black slaves
who now “threatened” whites (especially poor
whites) with competition for jobs, land, women,
and other resources.
Violent racists stereotyped blacks as ugly,
angry, beastlike savages who were out of
control. This view portrayed young black males
as instinctually inclined toward rape and other
savage behaviors.
 GENDER AND MEDIA CONTENT

The media’s history of portraying women

parallels its history of portraying racial minorities.

Women have typically been stereotyped as

submissive, passive, overly emotional, nurturing,

and dependent.
Conversely men have been stereotyped as

dominant, active, rational, aggressive, and

independent.
These depictions are consistent with the
dominant ideology of sexism, which supports
the social system known as patriarchy.
The media has historically depicted women in
a narrow range of social roles: love interest,
housewife, mother, virgin, and whore.
Capitalists have exploited sexual themes to
emphasize the image of young women as sex
objects.
Today if a woman is applying for a TV role, the

single most important consideration, given the

capitalist media obsession with sex and

violence formulas, is her physical appearance.

 SOCIAL CLASS AND MEDIA

Most advertisers (sponsors) aim for the middle

class consumer, ignoring the poor and working

class.
–They want to reach people with spending money.

Consequently they push the idea that media

content emphasize the middle or upper middle

class lifestyle as “normalcy.”

Result: the poor and working class are largely

ignored by the capitalist media.

When the poor and working class are found
in the media, they are typically stereotyped in
negative ways.
–It is important to remember that media
producers and owners rarely come from the
poor and working classes. They tend to
subscribe to mainstream stereotypes about
the lower and working classes, just as other
do.
Thus when they depict them, they portray
them as less civilized, uglier, somewhat
incompetent, and dumber than average.
The commercial media generally favours'
classist ideology, because they favour
consumers over non-consumers.
MEDIA INFLUENCE AND THE POLITICAL WORLD.

PART FOUR
AUDIENCE: MEANING AND INFLUENCE
 MEDIA INFLUENCE AND POLITICAL WORLD
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 7

The media system is presumably animated by

certain democratic principles. These principles
can be summarized into three basic relationship:
media and government; the proposition that,
acting on behalf of the citizenry, the media
should monitor the full range of state activity,
and fearlessly expose abuses of official
authority.
media and diverse opinion sources; the
proposition that the press should provide a
robust, uninhibited, and wide-open marketplace of
ideas, in which opposing views may meet,
contend, and take each other’s measure.
media and the public at large; the propositions
that the press should serve the public’s right to
know and offer options for meaningful political
choices and nourishment for effective
participation in civic affairs.
 MEDIA AND POLITICS

The media have fundamentally changed the way

we view politics.
Today politicians rely on the commercial mass
media to get the word out.
Given the capitalist nature of the commercial
media, politicians must garner massive amounts of
money to purchase media space.
–Much of this money comes from Big Media and
other large corporations, who expect “special
favours” in exchange for these “donations.”
Aside from incumbency, one of the best
predictors of which politician will get
elected involves which candidate raises
the most money to spend on media ads.
The media also play an indirect role in
influencing politics.
The news media, for example, helps set
the agenda of modern debates and issues.
 MEDIA AND POLITICAL ELITES

The most profound and direct influence of the

commercial media on politics involves which
politicians are covered by the mainstream media.
–The commercial media selects which politicians to
cover – and which to ignore.
–Those politicians most likely to get media attention
are the insiders – those already in power – and
those with the most money to purchase commercial
time.
In both cases the direction of media

favoritism is toward the political elites – who

are almost all wealthy and supportive of the

status quo.
 MEDIA AND INDIVIDUAL CITIZENS

Citizens in any democracy require adequate

information to make informed decisions. There are

four theoretical models of media influence:

1. The Hypodermic Model.

2. Limited Effects or the Social Influence Model

(1940s to 1960s)

3. Agenda setting model.

4. Priming Model

5. Framing Model
 THE HYPODERMIC EFFECT

The press is a powerful force in

shaping public opinion.
Messages were conceived as being
‘injected’ into the mind where they
changed feelings and attitudes.
 THE SOCIAL INFLUENCE MODEL

The period of strong advances in the psychological

studies. In this period the foundations of the media

effect were established.

Surprisingly, the general conclusion was that the

media don’t have as strong effect as it was thought

before.
The media don’t have a direct impact, but are

filtered by the community, by the opinion leaders.

 AGENDA SETTING HYPOTHESIS

This model argues that the media, while not so

successful in telling people exactly what to

think, are successful in telling people what to

think about (Cohen 1963).

The media set the agenda for discussion of

public issues and debates by directing people’s

attention to some issues while censoring other

issues
By seeing certain subjects more often we are

becoming convinced that they are important.

Further, we evaluate other news in terms of

what is important
 PRIMING EFFECTS

The ability of the media to affect which issues or

traits individuals use to evaluate political figures.

Individuals base their vote choice more on issues

covered by the media than on issues not covered by

the media
The media's content will provide a lot of time and

space to certain issues, making these issues more

accessible and vivid in the public's mind

 FRAMING EFFECTS

Framing effects result from the media’s

description of an event or issue that

emphasizes potentially relevant considera-

tions to help individuals make sense of the

issue (e.g., suggesting causes)

Individuals view policy issues consistent

with how they are portrayed by the media

 POLITICS AND ENTERTAINMENT MEDIA

The commercial media tend to

emphasize form over substance in their
political coverage.
This is partly due to the nature of
television itself, with its emphasis on
the image.
In effect, the commercial media have chosen

to censor substantive issues of national

importance in order to provide more escapist

entertainment for the masses – and in order to

maximize corporate profits.

It is the entertainment value rather than the

substantive value that matters most to media

corporations.
This blurring of tabloid coverage with social
relevance reflects one of the contradictions of
the post-modern commercial media.
–The public becomes unable to separate fact
from fiction
–Today we live in a media culture saturated
with infomercials – where the line between
truth and fiction has been deliberately blurred.
As the mass media have become more

important in political campaigns, political party

organizations have become less important.

Parties used to rely on grass roots organization

– which pulled people into the political system.

Conclusion: Candidates rely mostly on TV ads

to “sell” their agenda, and the political system

has been greatly cheapened.

 MEDIA AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS

The civic media sector supports organisations

that are the life force of democratic democracy.
These are political parties, new social
movements, interest groups and sub- cultural
networks that relay the concerns of society and
propose policy initiatives for consideration by
political system.
The civic media sector has three main
segments:
The first consist of media (such as party

controlled newspapers) which provide a link

between civic organisations and wider public.

They are generally adversarial, and seek to

build support for a partisan understanding of

society and set of objectives.

The second segment consist of sub-cultural
media (such as gay or lesbian magazines)
which relate to a social constituency rather
than an organised group. These can have an
important ‘constitutive’ function; they can
promote a sense of social cohesion and
common identity, and clarify values and goal
through internal processes of discussion.
The third segment consists of intra-
organisational media (such as trades union
journals) whose purpose is to reinforce the
loyalty of its members, hold leadership to
account, assist in the sharing of relevant
information and experience, and provide a
forum for developing new ideas and initiatives.
 GLOBAL MEDIA AND GLOBAL POLITICS

The emergence of a global media has

been controversial. This is because
some people fear that the media
products of the West will become the
dominant products of the rest of the
world, thus robbing the world of its
diversity.
Their concern involves the issue of cultural
imperialism: the imposition of a dominant
culture and its cultural forms upon a weaker
culture.
The basic argument is that Western media
products introduced to other nations,
especially developing nations, contribute to
a decline in the local values, traditions, and
cultures of these societies.
 ACTIVE AUDIENCES AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF
MEANING
Croteau and Hoynes, Chapter 8

While it is true that the media influence what

we think, it is not true that the media determine
what we think.
–Audiences are active interpreters.
Mass society theorists tend to argue that the
emergence of a mass society and the forces of
massification have led to mass indoctrination
into dominant ideologies and myths.
–These dominant ideologies serve the interests of
elites.
–This view downplays audiences’ ability to think
for themselves.
The idea of audiences as “active” interpreters
rather than “passive” receivers emerged out of
several forces:
1. Recent research.
2. Rising populism (“power to the people!”)
associated with the 1960s.
 THREE BASIC WAYS IN WHICH AUDIENCES
ARE ACTIVE:

1. Through individual interpretation of media products.

–Individuals have their own filters and perceptions linked to
their unique lives.

2. Through collective interpretation of media products.

–Membership in social categories influences how we
collectively see issues.
–Interpretations are socially constructed.

3. Through collective political action.

–Audiences make demands upon and give feedback to media
producers.
 MEANINGS: AGENCY AND STRUCTURE

The notion of an active audience points to a central

insight:
–Media texts do not have a singular meaning. They have
multiple meanings, depending on who produces them and who
interprets them.
–Everyone uses filters to interpret meanings, so the same
program or song may mean different things to different people
and audiences.
Polysemy: having multiple meanings or
interpretations.
–Media are polysemic.
WHERE DO MEANINGS COME FROM? THEY COME
FROM A MIX OF AGENCY AND STRUCTURE.

1. Dominant ideology, core values, stereotypes,

language, and cultural myths provide

mainstream ways to interpret. We all learn and

understand these mainstream interpretations,

which are reinforced by the mainstream media.

This is an aspect of social structure.

2. Personal experience. (An aspect of agency).

3. Subcultural and social category

memberships, such as learned in family and

among friends, peer groups, subcultures, etc.

This is an aspect of both social structure and

agency, because these meanings are

negotiated.

4. Authority and structural institutions like

school, church, government, media, etc.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE CONSTRAINS MEANINGS

Given the notion of (1) active audiences, and (2)

polysemy, does this mean that audiences are free
agents who can derive any meaning they want, or
that the meaning of texts is limited only by the
number of people reading the text?
John Fiske tends to push the envelope here, but
even he concedes that there are structural limits
to how people are likely to interpret a media text.
Social structure limits the ways we are likely to
interpret a media text.
The social landscape of daily life influences how we
interpret media messages.
Our personal filters are shaped by our social
identities. These social identities include age, race,

sex, social class and other social characteristics.

–People tend to interpret media messages in ways
that are consistent with their social locations in
society.
 ONE’S SOCIAL LOCATION MATTERS

Social location refers to age, race, sex,

social class, and other matters of social
status. It matters because it helps shape our
personal interpretive filters.
The task, then, is to be aware of the ways in
which meanings are socially constructed – by
socially located audiences under specific
social-historical circumstances.
 DOMINANT IDEOLOGY MEANINGS ARE EASY
TO GRASP.
Some meanings are easier to grasp than others.

–The easier ones draw upon widely shared values,

stereotypes, and dominant ideologies – aspects of

society we are all exposed to.

Other meanings are harder to grasp because they

are not mainstream interpretations or they do NOT

draw upon dominant myths and ideologies.

Note: This helps explain why advertising is a
fundamentally conservative phenomenon. Ads
must draw upon wider meanings (like
stereotypes) to be successful in reaching mass
audiences.
 PLEASURE AND FANTASY

What explains why a woman might get

pleasure from a TV show that depicts
women as subservient to men?
One pleasure she might get is hegemonic
pleasure. This pleasure is achieved if she
believes in the patriarchal order that is
reinforced by the TV show.
Another possible pleasure she might get
involves fantasy. If the TV show is read as
fantasy, then she is likely to suspend its
real-world ideological implications.
In fantasy, we are permitted to imagine
that we are different and therefore we
suspend real-world judgments. Fantasy is
intrinsically fun because it liberates us
from traditional real world structures.