1

Chapter 6: Classes and

Data Abstraction
Outline
6.1 Introduction
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type with a class
6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members
6.8 Controlling Access to Members
6.9 Access Functions and Utility Functions
6.10 Initializing Class Objects: Constructors
6.14 Using Set and Get Functions
6.16 Default Memberwise Assignment

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 2

6.1 Introduction

• Object-oriented programming (OOP)

– Encapsulates data (attributes) and functions (behavior) into
packages called classes
• Information hiding
– Class objects communicate across well-defined interfaces
– Implementation details hidden within classes themselves
• User-defined (programmer-defined) types: classes
– Data (data members)
– Functions (member functions or methods)
– Similar to blueprints – reusable
– Class instance: object

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 3
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Classes
– Model objects
• Attributes (data members)
• Behaviors (member functions)
– Defined using keyword class
– Member functions
• Methods
• Invoked in response to messages
• Member access specifiers
– public:
• Accessible wherever object of class in scope
– private:
• Accessible only to member functions of class
– protected:
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 4
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Constructor function
– Special member function
• Initializes data members
• Same name as class
– Called when object instantiated
– Several constructors
• Function overloading
– No return type

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 5
1 class Time {
2
Outline
3 public: Function prototypes for
4 Time();
Definition of class
Class begins
// body with left member functions.
startspublic
constructor
with keyword class. Class Time
5 void setTime( int, int, int brace.
); // set hour, minute, second
definition
6 void printUniversal(); Member// access specifiers.
print universal-time format
7 void printStandard();
Constructor has same name as
// print standard-time format
(1 of 1)
8 class, private
Time, anddata
no return
members
9 private: type. accessible only to member
10 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour functions.
clock format)
11 int minute;
Class
// 0
body
Definition
- 59
ends
terminatesright
with with
12 int second; //brace.
semicolon.
0 - 59
13
14 }; // end class Time

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 6
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Objects of class
– After class definition
• Class name new type specifier
– C++ extensible language
• Object, array, pointer and reference declarations
– Example: Class name becomes new
type specifier.
Time sunset; // object of type Time
Time arrayOfTimes[ 5 ]; // array of Time objects
Time *pointerToTime; // pointer to a Time object
Time &dinnerTime = sunset; // reference to a Time object

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 7
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Member functions defined outside class
– Binary scope resolution operator (::)
• “Ties” member name to class name
• Uniquely identify functions of particular class
• Different classes can have member functions with same name
– Format for defining member functions
ReturnType ClassName::MemberFunctionName( ){
…
}
– Does not change whether function public or private
• Member functions defined inside class
– Do not need scope resolution operator, class name
– Compiler attempts inline
• Outside class, inline explicitly with keyword inline

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 8
1 // Fig. 6.3: fig06_03.cpp
2 // Time class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_03.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 5)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 #include <iomanip>
9
10 using std::setfill;
11 using std::setw; Define class Time.
12
13 // Time abstract data type (ADT) definition
14 class Time {
15
16

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 9
22 private:
23 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
Outline
24 int minute; // 0 - 59
25 int second; // 0 - 59
fig06_03.cpp
26
(2 of 5)
27 public:
17
29 // Time constructor initializes each data member to zero and
Constructor initializes
30 // ensures all Time objects start in a consistent state
31 Time() private data members
32 { to 0.
33 hour = minute = second = 0;
34
35 } // end Time constructor
36
37 // set new Time value using universal time, perform validity
38 // checks on the data values and set invalid values to zero public member
39 void setTime( int h, int m, int s ) function checks
40 {
parameter values for
41 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
validity before setting
42 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
43 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
private data
44 members.
45 } // end function setTime
46

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 10
47 // print Time in universal format
48 void printUniversal()
Outline
49 {
50 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
fig06_03.cpp
51 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
(3 of 5)
52 << setw( 2 ) << second;
53
54 } // end function printUniversal No arguments (implicitly
55 “know” purpose is to print
56 // print Time in standard format data members); member
57 void printStandard() function calls more concise.
58 {
59 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
60 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
61 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
62 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
63
64 } // end function printStandard
Declare variable t to be
65 }; // end class Time
object of class Time.
66 int main()
67 {
68 Time t; // instantiate object t of class Time
69

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 11
70 // output Time object t's initial values
71 cout << "The initial universal time is ";
Outline
72 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
73
Invoke public member fig06_03.cpp
74 cout << "\nThe initial standard time is ";
functions to print time. (4 of 5)
75 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
76
77 t.setTime( 13, 27, 6 ); // change time
78
79 Set data members using
// output Time object t's new values
80 publicismember
cout << "\n\nUniversal time after setTime "; function.
81 t.printUniversal(); // 13:27:06
82
Attempt to set data members
83 cout << "\nStandard time after setTime is ";
to invalid values using
84 t.printStandard(); // 1:27:06 PM
85
public member function.
86 t.setTime( 99, 99, 99 ); // attempt invalid settings
87
88 // output t's values after specifying invalid values
89 cout << "\n\nAfter attempting invalid settings:"
90 << "\nUniversal time: ";
91 t.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
92

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 12
93 cout << "\nStandard time: ";
94 t.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
Outline
95 cout << endl;
96
fig06_03.cpp
97 return 0;
(5 of 5)
98
99 } // end main
fig06_03.cpp
The initial universal time is 00:00:00 output (1 of 1)
The initial standard time is 12:00:00 AM
 
Universal time after setTime is 13:27:06
Standard time after setTime is 1:27:06 PM
Data members set to 0 after
 
attempting invalid settings.
After attempting invalid settings:
Universal time: 00:00:00
Standard time: 12:00:00 AM

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 13
6.5 Implementing a Time Abstract Data Type
with a class
• Advantages of using classes
– Simplify programming
– Interfaces
• Hide implementation
– Software reuse
• Composition (aggregation)
– Class objects included as members of other classes
• Inheritance
– New classes derived from old

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 14

6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members

• Class scope
– Data members, member functions
– Within class scope
• Class members
– Immediately accessible by all member functions
– Referenced by name
– Outside class scope
• Referenced through handles
– Object name, reference to object, pointer to object
• File scope
– Nonmember functions

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 15

6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members

• Function scope
– Variables declared in member function
– Only known to function
– Variables with same name as class-scope variables
• Class-scope variable “hidden”
– Access with scope resolution operator (::)
ClassName::classVariableName
– Variables only known to function they are defined in
– Variables are destroyed after function completion

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 16

6.6 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members

• Operators to access class members

– Identical to those for structs
– Dot member selection operator (.)
• Object
• Reference to object
– Arrow member selection operator (->)
• Pointers

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 17
1 // Fig. 6.4: fig06_04.cpp
2 // Demonstrating the class member access operators . and ->
Outline
3 //
4 // CAUTION: IN FUTURE EXAMPLES WE AVOID PUBLIC DATA!
fig06_04.cpp
5 #include <iostream>
(1 of 2)
6
7 using std::cout;
8 using std::endl;
9
10 // class Count definition
11 class Count { Data member x public to
12 illustrate class member access
13 public: operators; typically data
14 int x; members private.
15
16 void print()
17 {
18 cout << x << endl;
19 }
20
21 }; // end class Count
22

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 18
23 int main()
24 {
Outline
25 Count counter; // create counter object
26 Count *counterPtr = &counter; // create pointer to counter
fig06_04.cpp
27 Count &counterRef = counter; // Use dot reference
create member selection
to counter
(2 of 2)
28 operator for counter object.
29 cout << "Assign 1 to x and print using the object's name: ";
30 counter.x = 1; // assign 1 to data member x fig06_04.cpp
31 counter.print(); // call member Use dot member
function print selection output (1 of 1)
32 operator for counterRef
33 cout << "Assign 2 to x and print reference
using to object.";
a reference:
34 counterRef.x = 2; // assign 2 to data member x
35 Use arrowprint
counterRef.print(); // call member function member selection
36 operator for counterPtr
37 cout << "Assign 3 to x and print pointer
using to object.
a pointer: ";
38 counterPtr->x = 3; // assign 3 to data member x
39 counterPtr->print(); // call member function print
40
41 return 0;
42
43 } // end main

Assign 1 to x and print using the object's name: 1

Assign 2 to x and print using a reference: 2
Assign 3 to x and print using a pointer: 3

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 19

6.8 Controlling Access to Members

• Access modes
– private
• Default access mode
• Accessible to member functions and friends
– public
• Accessible to any function in program with handle to class
object
– protected
• Chapter 9

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 20
1 // Fig. 6.8: fig06_08.cpp
2 // Demonstrate errors resulting from attempts
Outline
3 // to access private class members.
4 #include <iostream>
fig06_08.cpp
5
(1 of 1)
6 using std::cout;
7
8 // include definition of class Time from time1.h
9 #include "time1.h"
10
11 int main()
12 {
13 Time t; // create Time object
Recall data member hour is
14 private; attempts to access
15 private members results in
16 error. is not accessible
t.hour = 7; // error: 'Time::hour' Data member minute also
17 private; attempts to access
18 // error: 'Time::minute' is not accessible private members produces
19 cout << "minute = " << t.minute; error.
20
21 return 0;
22
23 } // end main

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 21
D:\cpphtp4_examples\ch06\Fig6_06\Fig06_06.cpp(16) : error C2248:
'hour' : cannot access private member declared in class 'Time' Outline
D:\cpphtp4_examples\ch06\Fig6_06\Fig06_06.cpp(19) : error C2248:
'minute' : cannot access private member declared in class 'Time'
fig06_08.cpp
output (1 of 1)
Errors produced by
attempting to access
private members.

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 22

6.8 Controlling Access to Members

• Class member access

– Default private
– Explicitly set to private, public, protected
• struct member access
– Default public
– Explicitly set to private, public, protected
• Access to class’s private data
– Controlled with access functions (accessor methods)
• Get function
– Read private data
• Set function
– Modify private data

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 23

6.9 Access Functions and Utility Functions

• Access functions
– public
– Read/display data
– Predicate functions
• Check conditions
• Utility functions (helper functions)
– private
– Support operation of public member functions
– Not intended for direct client use

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 24
1 // Fig. 6.9: salesp.h
2 // SalesPerson class definition.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in salesp.cpp.
4 #ifndef SALESP_H
salesp.h (1 of 1)
5 #define SALESP_H
6
7 class SalesPerson {
8 Set access function
15 private: performs validity
16 double totalAnnualSales(); // utility checks.
function
17 double sales[ 12 ]; // 12 monthly sales figures
18
19
private utility
function.

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 25
1 // Fig. 6.10: salesp.cpp
2 // Member functions for class SalesPerson.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
salesp.cpp (1 of 3)
5 using std::cout;
6 using std::cin;
7 using std::endl;
8 using std::fixed;
9
10 #include <iomanip>
11
12 using std::setprecision;
13
14 // include SalesPerson class definition from salesp.h
15 #include "salesp.h"
16
17 // initialize elements of array sales to 0.0
18 SalesPerson::SalesPerson()
19 {
20 for ( int i = 0; i < 12; i++ )
21 sales[ i ] = 0.0;
22
23 } // end SalesPerson constructor
24

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 26
25 public:
// get 12 sales figures from the user at the keyboard
Outline
26 void getSalesFromUser()
27 {
salesp.cpp (2 of 3)
28 double salesFigure;
29
30 for ( int i = 1; i <= 12; i++ ) {
31 cout << "Enter sales amount for month " << i << ": ";
32 cin >> salesFigure;
33 setSales( i, salesFigure );
34
35 } // end for
36
37 } // end function getSalesFromUser
38
39 // set one of the 12 monthly sales figures; function subtracts
Set access function performs
40 // one from month value for proper subscript in sales array
validity checks.
41 void setSales( int month, double amount )
42 {
43 // test for valid month and amount values
44 if ( month >= 1 && month <= 12 && amount > 0 )
45 sales[ month - 1 ] = amount; // adjust for subscripts 0-11
46
47 else // invalid month or amount value
48 cout << "Invalid month or sales figure" << endl;

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 27
49
50 } // end function setSales
Outline
51
52 // print total annual sales (with help of utility function)
salesp.cpp (3 of 3)
53 void printAnnualSales()
54 {
55 cout << setprecision( 2 ) << fixed
56 << "\nThe total annual sales are: $"
57 << totalAnnualSales() << endl; // call utility function
58
59 } // end function printAnnualSales
60 private utility function to
61 // private utility function to total annual sales help function
62 double totalAnnualSales() printAnnualSales;
63 { encapsulates logic of
64 double total = 0.0; // initialize total manipulating sales array.
65
66 for ( int i = 0; i < 12; i++ ) // summarize sales results
67 total += sales[ i ];
68
69 return total;
70
•} // end function totalAnnualSales
}; // end class SalesPerson
20
21 #endif
•

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 28
1
2 // Demonstrating a utility function.
Outline
3 // Compile this program with salesp.cpp
4
fig06_11.cpp
5 // include SalesPerson class definition from salesp.h
(1 of 1)
7
8 int main()
9 { Simple sequence of member
10 SalesPerson s; // create SalesPerson object sfunction calls; logic
11
encapsulated in member
12 s.getSalesFromUser(); // note simple sequential code; no
functions.
13 s.printAnnualSales(); // control structures in main
14
15 return 0;
16
17 } // end main

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 29
Enter sales amount for month 1: 5314.76
Enter sales amount for month 2: 4292.38
Outline
Enter sales amount for month 3: 4589.83
Enter sales amount for month 4: 5534.03
fig06_11.cpp
Enter sales amount for month 5: 4376.34
output (1 of 1)
Enter sales amount for month 6: 5698.45
Enter sales amount for month 7: 4439.22
Enter sales amount for month 8: 5893.57
Enter sales amount for month 9: 4909.67
Enter sales amount for month 10: 5123.45
Enter sales amount for month 11: 4024.97
Enter sales amount for month 12: 5923.92
 
The total annual sales are: $60120.59

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 30

6.10 Initializing Class Objects: Constructors

• Constructors
– Initialize data members
• Or can set later
– Same name as class
– No return type
• Initializers
– Passed as arguments to constructor
– In parentheses to right of class name before semicolon
Class-type ObjectName( value1,value2,…);

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 31
6.11 Using Default Arguments with
Constructors
• Constructors
– Can specify default arguments
– Default constructors
• Defaults all arguments
OR
• Explicitly requires no arguments
• Can be invoked with no arguments
• Only one per class

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 32
1 // Fig. 6.12: time2.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in time2.cpp.
4
time2.h (1 of 1)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME2_H
7 #define TIME2_H
7 #include <iomanip>
8
9 using std::setfill;
Default constructor specifying
10 using std::setw; all arguments.
9 // Time abstract data type definition
10 class Time {
11
18 private:
19 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
20 int minute; // 0 - 59
21 int second; // 0 - 59
22

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 33
11
12 // include definition of class Time from time2.h
Outline
13 #include "time2.h"
14
time2.cpp (1 of 3)
15 // Time constructor initializes each data member to zero;
16 // ensures all Time objects start in a consistent state
17 Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
18 {
19 setTime( hr, min, sec ); // validate and set time
20
21 } // end Time constructor
22

Constructor calls setTime

to validate passed (or default)
values.

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 34
23 // set new Time value using universal time, perform validity
24 // checks on the data values and set invalid values to zero
Outline
25 void setTime( int h, int m, int s )
26 {
time2.cpp (2 of 3)
27 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
28 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
29 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
30
31 } // end function setTime
32
33 // print Time in universal format
34 void printUniversal()
35 {
36 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
37 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
38 << setw( 2 ) << second;
39
40 } // end function printUniversal
41

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 35
42 // print Time in standard format
43 void Time::printStandard()
Outline
44 {
45 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
time2.cpp (3 of 3)
46 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
47 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
48 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
49
•} // end function printStandard

23 }; // end class Time

24
25 #endif

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 36
4
5 using std::cout;
Outline
6 using std::endl;
7
fig06_14.cpp
8 int main()
(1 of 2)
12 {
13 Time t1; // all arguments defaulted
14 Time t2( 2 ); // minute and second defaulted
15 Time t3( 21, 34 ); // second defaulted
16 Time t4( 12, 25, 42 ); // all values specified
17 Time t5( 27, 74, 99 ); // all bad values specified
18 Initialize Time
19 cout << "Constructed with:\n\n" objects using
20 << "all default arguments:\n "; default arguments.
21 t1.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
22 cout << "\n ";
23 t1.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
24
Initialize Time object with
invalid values; validity
checking will set values to 0.

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 37
25 cout << "\n\nhour specified; default minute and second:\n ";
26 t2.printUniversal(); // 02:00:00
Outline
27 cout << "\n ";
28 t2.printStandard(); // 2:00:00 AM
fig06_14.cpp
29
(2 of 2)
30 cout << "\n\nhour and minute specified; default second:\n ";
31 t3.printUniversal(); // 21:34:00
32 cout << "\n ";
33 t3.printStandard(); // 9:34:00 PM
34
35 cout << "\n\nhour, minute, and second specified:\n ";
36 t4.printUniversal(); // 12:25:42
37 cout << "\n ";
38 t4.printStandard(); // 12:25:42 PM
39 t5 constructed with invalid
40 cout << "\n\nall invalid values specified:\n "; arguments; values set to 0.
41 t5.printUniversal(); // 00:00:00
42 cout << "\n ";
43 t5.printStandard(); // 12:00:00 AM
44 cout << endl;
45
46 return 0;
47
48 } // end main

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 38
Constructed with:
 
Outline
all default arguments:
00:00:00
fig06_14.cpp
12:00:00 AM
output (1 of 1)
 
hour specified; default minute and second:
02:00:00
2:00:00 AM
 
hour and minute specified; default second:
21:34:00
9:34:00 PM
 
hour, minute, and second specified:
12:25:42
12:25:42 PM
 
all invalid values specified:
00:00:00
12:00:00 AM

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 39

6.14 Using Set and Get Functions

• Set functions
– Perform validity checks before modifying private data
– Notify if invalid values
– Indicate with return values
• Get functions
– “Query” functions
– Control format of data returned

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 40
1 // Fig. 6.18: time3.h
2 // Declaration of class Time.
Outline
3 // Member functions defined in time3.cpp
4
time3.h (1 of 2)
5 // prevent multiple inclusions of header file
6 #ifndef TIME3_H
7 #define TIME3_H
8
9 class Time {
10
11 public:
12 Time( int = 0, int = 0, int = 0 ); // default constructor
13 Set functions.
14 // set functions
15 void setTime( int, int, int ); // set hour, minute, second
16 void setHour( int ); // set hour
17 void setMinute( int ); // set minute
18 void setSecond( int ); // set second
19
Get functions.
20 // get functions
21 int getHour(); // return hour
22 int getMinute(); // return minute
23 int getSecond(); // return second
24

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 41
25 void printUniversal(); // output universal-time format
26 void printStandard(); // output standard-time format
Outline
27
28 private:
time3.h (2 of 2)
29 int hour; // 0 - 23 (24-hour clock format)
30 int minute; // 0 - 59
31 int second; // 0 - 59
32
33 }; // end clas Time
34
35 #endif

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 42
1 // Fig. 6.19: time3.cpp
2 // Member-function definitions for Time class.
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
time3.cpp (1 of 4)
5 using std::cout;
6
7 #include <iomanip>
8
9 using std::setfill;
10 using std::setw;
11
12 // include definition of class Time from time3.h
13 #include "time3.h"
14
15 // constructor function to initialize private data;
16 // calls member function setTime to set variables;
17 // default values are 0 (see class definition)
18 Time::Time( int hr, int min, int sec )
19 {
20 setTime( hr, min, sec );
21
22 } // end Time constructor
23

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 43
24 // set hour, minute and second values
25 void Time::setTime( int h, int m, int s )
Outline
26 {
27 setHour( h );
time3.cpp (2 of 4)
28 setMinute( m );
29 setSecond( s );
30 Call set functions to perform
31 } // end function setTime validity checking.
32
33 // set hour value
34 void Time::setHour( int h )
35 {
36 hour = ( h >= 0 && h < 24 ) ? h : 0;
37
38 } // end function setHour
39
Set functions perform validity
40 // set minute value
checks before modifying data.
41 void Time::setMinute( int m )
42 {
43 minute = ( m >= 0 && m < 60 ) ? m : 0;
44
45 } // end function setMinute
46

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 Set function performs validity 44
47 // set second value
48 void Time::setSecond( int s ) checksbefore modifying data. Outline
49 {
50 second = ( s >= 0 && s < 60 ) ? s : 0;
time3.cpp (3 of 4)
51
52 } // end function setSecond
53
54 // return hour value
55 int Time::getHour()
56 {
57 return hour;
58
59 } // end function getHour
Get functions allow client to
60
read data.
61 // return minute value
62 int Time::getMinute()
63 {
64 return minute;
65
66 } // end function getMinute
67

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 45
68 // return second value
69 int Time::getSecond()
Outline
70 {
71 return second;
time3.cpp (4 of 4)
72
73 } // end function getSecond Get function allows client to
74 read data.
75 // print Time in universal format
76 void Time::printUniversal()
77 {
78 cout << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << hour << ":"
79 << setw( 2 ) << minute << ":"
80 << setw( 2 ) << second;
81
82 } // end function printUniversal
83
84 // print Time in standard format
85 void Time::printStandard()
86 {
87 cout << ( ( hour == 0 || hour == 12 ) ? 12 : hour % 12 )
88 << ":" << setfill( '0' ) << setw( 2 ) << minute
89 << ":" << setw( 2 ) << second
90 << ( hour < 12 ? " AM" : " PM" );
91
92 } // end function printStandard

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 46
1 // Fig. 6.20: fig06_20.cpp
2 // Demonstrating the Time class set and get functions
Outline
3 #include <iostream>
4
fig06_20.cpp
5 using std::cout;
(1 of 3)
6 using std::endl;
7
8 // include definition of class Time from time3.h
9 #include "time3.h"
10
11 void incrementMinutes( Time &, const int ); // prototype
12
13 int main() Invoke set functions to set
14 {
valid values.
15 Time t; // create Time object
16
17 // set time using individual set functions
18 t.setHour( 17 ); // set hour to valid value
19 t.setMinute( 34 ); // set minute to valid value
20 t.setSecond( 25 ); // set second to valid value
21

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 47
22 // use get functions to obtain hour, minute and second
23 cout << "Result of setting all valid values:\n"
Outline
24 << " Hour: " << t.getHour()
25 << " Minute: " << t.getMinute()
Attempt to set invalid values
26 << " Second: " << t.getSecond(); using set functions. fig06_20.cpp
(2 of 3)
27
28 // set time using individual set functions
29 t.setHour( 234 ); // invalid hour set to 0
30 t.setMinute( 43 ); // set minute to valid value
31 t.setSecond( 6373 ); // invalid second set to 0 Invalid values result in setting
32
data members to 0.
33 // display hour, minute and second after setting
34 // invalid hour and second values
35 cout << "\n\nResult of attempting to set invalid hour and"
36 << " second:\n Hour: " << t.getHour()
Modify data members using
37 << " Minute: " << t.getMinute()
38 << " Second: " << t.getSecond() << "\n\n";
function setTime.
39
40 t.setTime( 11, 58, 0 ); // set time
41 incrementMinutes( t, 3 ); // increment t's minute by 3
42
43 return 0;
44
45 } // end main
46

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 48
47 // add specified number of minutes to a Time object
48 void incrementMinutes( Time &tt, const int count )
Outline
49 {
50 cout << "Incrementing minute " << count
fig06_20.cpp
51 << " times:\nStart time: ";
Using get functions to 3)
(3 of read
52 tt.printStandard();
53
data and set functions to
54 for ( int i = 0; i < count; i++ ) { modify data.
55 tt.setMinute( ( tt.getMinute() + 1 ) % 60 );
56
57 if ( tt.getMinute() == 0 )
58 tt.setHour( ( tt.getHour() + 1 ) % 24);
59
60 cout << "\nminute + 1: ";
61 tt.printStandard();
62
63 } // end for
64
65 cout << endl;
66
67 } // end function incrementMinutes

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All rights reserved.
 49
Result of setting all valid values:
Hour: 17 Minute: 34 Second: 25
Outline
 
Result of attempting to set invalid hour and second:
fig06_20.cpp
Hour: 0 Minute: 43 Second: 0
output (1 of 1)
 
Incrementing minute 3 times:
Start time: 11:58:00 AM
minute + 1: 11:59:00 AM
Attempting to set data
minute + 1: 12:00:00 PM members with invalid values
minute + 1: 12:01:00 PM results in error message and
members set to 0.

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All rights reserved.
 50

6.16 Default Memberwise Assignment

• Assigning objects
– Assignment operator (=)
• Can assign one object to another of same type
• Default: memberwise assignment
– Each right member assigned individually to left member
• Passing, returning objects
– Objects passed as function arguments
– Objects returned from functions
– Default: pass-by-value
• Copy of object passed, returned
– Copy constructor
• Copy original values into new object

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