Metal Forming:

EXTRUSION PROCESSES
o Extrusion is a compression process in which the
work metal is forced to flow through a die
opening to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
o The process can be likened to squeezing
toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube.

There are several advantages of the modern process:

(1) a variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot
extrusion;
(2) grain structure and strength properties are
enhanced in cold and warm extrusion;
(3) fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in
cold extrusion;
(4) little or no wasted material is created.
  A limitation is that the cross section of the extruded
part must be uniform throughout its length.

Types of Extrusion
(1) Direct extrusion and indirect extrusion.
(2) Cold, warm, or hot extrusion.
(3) Continuous process or discrete process extrusion.

Direct and Indirect Extrusion

 In Direct extrusion (also called forward
extrusion) a metal billet is loaded into a
container, and a ram compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through one or more
openings in a die at the opposite end of the
container.
 As the ram approaches the die, a small portion
of the billet remains that cannot be forced
through the die opening.
 This extra portion, called the butt, is separated
from the product by cutting it just beyond the
exit of the die.
 One of the problems in direct extrusion is the
significant friction that exists between the work
surface and the walls of the container as the billet is
forced to slide toward the die opening.
 This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram
force required in direct extrusion.
 In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated
by the presence of an oxide layer on the surface of
the billet, causing defects in the extruded product.
 To address these problems, a dummy block is often
used between the ram and the work billet.
 The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller
than the billet diameter, so that a narrow ring of
work metal (mostly the oxide layer) is left in the
container, leaving the final product free of oxides.
• Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in
direct extrusion
• The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to
its axis. This allows passage of a mandrel that is
attached to the dummy block.
• As the billet is compressed, the material is forced
to flow through the clearance between the mandrel
and the die opening.
 The resulting cross section is tubular. Semi-hollow
cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the
same way.
 The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually
round in cross section, but the final shape is
determined by the shape of the die opening.
 The largest dimension of the die opening must be
smaller than the diameter of the billet.
 In indirect extrusion, also called backward
extrusion and reverse extrusion, the die is mounted
to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.
 As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is
forced to flow through the clearance in a direction
opposite to the motion of the ram.
 Since the billet is not forced to move relative
to the container, there is no friction at the container
walls, and the ramforce is therefore lower than in
direct extrusion.
 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the
lower rigidity of the hollow ram and the difficulty
in supporting the extruded product as it exits the
die.
 Indirect extrusion can produce hollow(tubular)
cross sections.
 In this method, the ram is pressed into the billet,
forcing the material to flow around the ram and
take a cup shape.
 There are practical limitations on the length of the
extruded part that can be made by this method.
 Support of the ram becomes a problem as work
length increases.
Hot and Cold Extrusion
 Extrusion can be performed either hot or cold,
depending on workmetal and amount of strain to
which it is subjected during deformation.
 Metals that are typically extruded hot include
aluminium, copper, magnesium, zinc, tin, and their
alloys.
 These same metals are sometimes extruded cold.

 Steel alloys are usually extruded hot,

although the softer, more ductile grades are
sometimes cold extruded (e.g., low carbon
steels and stainless steel).
 Aluminium is probably the most ideal metal for
extrusion (hot and cold), and many commercial
aluminium products are made by this process
(structural shapes, door and window frames, etc.).

Hot extrusion
 This involves prior heating of the billet to a
temperature above its recrystallization temperature.
 This reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more extreme size reductions and
more complex shapes to be achieved in the process.

Advantages include:
 reduction of ram force,
 increased ram speed, and reduction of grain flow
 reduction of grain flow characteristics in the final
product.

 Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container

walls is a problem, and isothermal extrusion is
sometimes used to overcome this problem.
 Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain
metals (e.g., steels), and special lubricants have been
developed that are effective under the harsh
conditions in hot extrusion.
 Glass is sometimes used as a lubricant in hot
extrusion; in addition to reducing friction, it also
provides effective thermal insulation between the
billet and the extrusion container.
Cold extrusion
 Includes warm extrusion and is generally used to
produce discrete parts, often in finished (or near
finished) form.
 Impact extrusion indicates high-speed cold extrusion.

Advantages of cold extrusion

 increased strength due to strain hardening,
 close tolerances,
 improved surface finish,
 absence of oxide layers,
 high production rates.
 Cold extrusion at room temperature also eliminates
the need for heating the starting billet.
Continuous and Discrete Processing
 A true continuous process operates in steady
state mode for an indefinite period of time.
 Extrusion operations in this case produce very long
sections in one cycle, but these operations are
ultimately limited by the size of the starting billet
that can be loaded into the extrusion container.
 These processes are semi-continuous operations.
 In nearly all cases, the long section is cut into smaller
lengths in a subsequent sawing or shearing
operation.
 In a discrete extrusion operation, a single part is
produced in each extrusion cycle.
 Impact extrusion is an example of the discrete
processing case.
Analysis of Extrusion
Figure: Pressure
and other variables
in direct extrusion.

o Figure above shows parameters in extrusion.

o Fihure assumes that both billet and extrudate are
round in cross section.
o One important parameter is the extrusion ratio, also
called the reduction ratio.
  o The reduction ratio, is defined as:
  𝑨𝒐
𝒓 𝒙=
𝑨𝒇
where Ao is cross-sectional area of the starting billet

Af is final cross-sectional area of the extruded

section

 The reduction ratio applies for both direct and

indirect extrusion.
 The value of rx can be used to determine true strain
in extrusion, given that ideal deformation occurs
𝑨 𝒐 work:
with no friction  and no redundant
𝝐 =𝐥𝐧 𝒓 𝒙 =𝐥𝐧
𝑨𝒇
 Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no
friction and no redundant work), the pressure, p,
applied by the ram to compress the billet through
the die opening can be computed as follows:
 
𝒑=𝒀´ 𝒇 𝐥𝐧 𝒓 𝒙
 ´
𝒀 𝒇 is average flow stress
 
Thus ,  
´ 𝒇=
𝒀
𝑲 𝝐 𝒏

𝟏+𝒏
 Friction exists between the die and the work as the
billet squeezes down and passes through the die.
 The effect of friction is to increase the strain
experienced by the metal. Thus, the actual pressure
is greater than that given by equations above which
assume no friction.
 Empirical equations are used to estimate extrusion
strain, thus (Johnson):
 𝝐 𝒙 =𝒂 +𝒃 𝐥𝐧 𝒓 𝒙
 
where x is extrusion strain;
a and b are empirical constants for a given die
angle. Typical values of these constants are:
a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to 1.5.

Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing die

angle.
 The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can
be estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain
formula as follows:
  
𝒑=𝒀´ 𝒇 𝝐 𝒙
where Yf is calculated based on ideal strain and not
extrusion strain according to Johnson.
 In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between the
container walls and the billet causes the ram
pressure to be greater than for indirect extrusion.
 The following is an expression which isolates the
friction force in the direct extrusion container:

additional ram force = billet-container friction force,

  𝒑 𝒇 𝝅 𝑫 𝟐𝒐
=𝝁 𝒑 𝒄 𝝅 𝑫 𝒐 𝑳
𝟒
 
where pf is additional pressure required to overcome
friction,
is billet cross-sectional area,
is coefficient of friction at the container wall;
pc is pressure of the billet against the container
wall,
is area of the interface between billet and
container wall,.

 In the worst case, sticking occurs at the container

wall so that friction stress equals shear yield
strength of the work metal:
 
=
where Ys is shear yield strength.
   If it is assumed that Ys = , then pf reduces to the
following:
 

 The ram pressure (p) in direct extrusion is

calculated as:
 
(

where 2L/Do accounts for additional pressure due to

friction at the container–billet interface.
• L is portion of billet length remaining to be
extruded, and Do is the original diameter of the
billet.
• p is reduced as the remaining billet length decreases
during the process.
 Typical plots of ram pressure as a function of ram
stroke for direct and indirect extrusion are
presented in Figure below.
 Ram force (F) in indirect or direct extrusion is
simply pressure p multiplied by billet area Ao:
𝐹= 𝑝 𝐴 𝑜
 

Power (P) required to carry out the extrusion

operation is given as:
𝑃= 𝐹𝑣
 

where F is ram force, (N) and v is ram velocity, (m/s)

OTHER EXTRUSION PROCESSES
o Direct and indirect extrusion are the principal
methods of extrusion.
o Various names are given to operations that are
special cases of the direct and indirect methods.
o Other extrusion operations are unique.

Impact Extrusion
 Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and
shorter strokes than conventional extrusion.
 It is used to make individual components.
 In impact extrusion, the punch impacts the
workpart rather than simply applying pressure to
it.
 Impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion,
 forward

backward

combination of forward and backward.

Hydrostatic Extrusion
 One of the problems in direct extrusion is friction
along the billet–container interface.
 This problem can be addressed by surrounding the
billet with fluid inside the container and
pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion of the
ram as shown below.
• This way, there is no friction inside the container,
and friction at the die opening is reduced.
• Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than
in direct extrusion. The fluid pressure acting on all
surfaces of the billet gives the process its name.
• It can be carried out at room temperature or at
elevated temperatures. Special fluids and
procedures must be used at elevated temperatures.
• Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of direct
extrusion. Hydrostatic pressure on the work
increases the material’s ductility.
 The process can be used on metals that would be
too brittle for conventional extrusion operations.
• A disadvantage of the process is the required
preparation of the starting work billet which must
be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into
the die entry angle.
• This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from
squirting out the die hole when the container is
initially pressurized.
 Extrusion equipmen
Extrusion equipment includes:
(1) Presses
(2) dies
(3) Tools

• Most extrusions are made with hydraulic presses.

• These can be classified based on the direction of
travel of the ram.
1) Horizontal presses
2) Vertical presses
Horizontal extrusion presses
 15- 50 MN capacity or upto 140 MN
• Used for most commercial extrusion of bars and
shapes.

.Disadvantages:
• deformation is non-
uniform due to
different temperatures
between top and
bottom parts of the
billet
Vertical extrusion presses
 3- 20 MN capacity
 Chiefly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.

Advantages:
• Easier alignment between
the press ram and tools.
• Higher rate of production.
• Require less floor space
than horizontal presses.
• uniform deformation, due
to uniform cooling of the
billet in the container.
Die design & Consideration
• Die design is at the heart of efficient extrusion
production.
• Dies must withstand considerable amount of
stresses, thermal shock, and oxidation.
 Wall thickness: different wall thicknesses in one
section should be avoided.
 Simple shapes: the more simple shape the more
cost effective.
 Symetrical: more accurate.
 Sharp or rounded corners: sharp corners should be
avoided.
 Size to weight ratio
 Tolerances are added to allow some distortions
(industrial standards).
 Important factors in an extrusion die are die angle
and orifice shape. Die half-angle, is shown below.
 For low angles, surface area of the die is large,
leading to increased friction at the die–billet
interface. .
 Higher friction results
in larger ram force. On
the other hand, a large
die angle causes more
turbulence in the metal
flow during reduction,
increasing the ram force
required
 A complex cross section requires a higher pressure
and greater force than a circular shape.
 The effect of the die orifice shape can be assessed
by the die shape factor, Kx, defined as the ratio of
the pressure required to extrude a cross section of a
given shape relative to the extrusion pressure for a
round cross section of the same area, expressed as
follows:
𝟐. 𝟐𝟓
 
𝑪𝒙
𝑲 𝒙 =𝟎 . 𝟗𝟖+𝟎 . 𝟎𝟐
( )
𝑪𝒄

Where Cx is perimeter of the extruded cross section,

Cc is perimeter of a circle of the same area as
the extruded shape.
Die materials
• Dies are made from highly alloy tools steels or
ceramics (zirconia, Si3N4 : for cold extrusion
offering longer tool life and reduced lubricant used,
good wear resistance).
• Wall thickness as small as 0.5 mm (on flat dies) or 0.7

mm (on hollow dies) can be made for aluminium

extrusion.
• Heat treatments such as nitriding are required
(several times) to increase hardness (1000-1100 Hv or

65-70 HRC). This improves die life.

DEFECTS IN EXTRUDED PRODUCTS
 Owing to the considerable deformation associated
with extrusion operations, a number of defects can
occur in extruded products.

(b) (c) surface

(a) centerburst,
piping . cracking
Centerburst.
 This defect is an internal crack that develops as a
result of tensile stresses along the centerline of the
workpart during extrusion.
 Although tensile stresses may seem unlikely in a
compression process such as extrusion, they tend to
occur under conditions that cause large
deformation in the regions of the work away from
the central axis.
 Significant material movement in these outer
regions stretches the material along the center of
the work.
 If stresses are great enough, bursting occurs.
 Conditions that promote centerburst are high die
angles, low extrusion ratios, and impurities in the
work metal that serve as starting points for crack
defects.
 The difficult aspect of centerburst (arrowhead
fracture, center cracking, and chevron cracking) is its
detection. It is an internal defect that is usually not
noticeable by visual observation.
Piping.
 Piping (tailpipe and fishtailing) is a defect
associated with direct extrusion.
 It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the
billet. The use of a dummy block whose diameter is
slightly less than that of the billet helps to avoid
piping.
Surface cracking.
 This defect results from high workpart
temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the
surface.
 They often occur when extrusion speed is too high,
leading to high strain rates and associated heat
generation.
 Other factors contributing to surface cracking are
high friction and surface chilling of high
temperature billets in hot extrusion.
 
Example:
A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be
extruded in a direct extrusion operation with extrusion
ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has a round cross section.

The die angle (halfangle) is . The work metal has a

strength coefficient of 415 MPa, and strain-hardening
exponent is 0.18. Use the Johnson formula with a = 0.8
and b = 1.5 to estimate extrusion strain.

Determine the pressure applied to the end of the billet

as the ram moves forward.
 Solution
 The ram pressure at billet lengths of L= 75mm
(starting value), L= 50 mm, L= 25 mm, and L= 0 is
examined
 The ideal true strain, extrusion strain using
Johnson’s formula, and average flow stress are
calculated, thus:
 
ideal true strain =
 
extrusion strain (Johnson) =
= 0.8 + 1.5 (1.3863)
= 2.8895
 
=
= 373 x
At L= 75mm:

With a die angle of 90, the billet metal is assumed to

be forced through the die opening almost
immediately;
 Calculation assumes that maximum pressure is
reached at the billet length of 75mm. For die angles
less than 90, the pressure would build to a
maximum as the starting billet is squeezed into the
cone-shaped portion of the extrusion die.

Thus, at L= 75mm:
 
( = 373 x (2.8795 +
 At L= 50mm:
 
( = 373 x (2.8795 +

At L= 25mm:

 
( = 373 x (2.8795 +

At L= 0 mm:
 
( = 373 x (2.8795 +0