UNIT OPERATION 1

CHE 321
(3 Units)

Dr. O. A. ODUNLAMI
MODULES FOUR & FIVE

PACKED & FLUIDIZED

BEDS
PACKED BEDS
•In chemical processing, a packed bed is a hollow tube, pipe, or
other vessel that is filled with a packing material.

•The packing can be randomly filled with small objects like

Raschig rings or else it can be a specifically designed
structured packing.

•Packed beds may also contain catalyst particles or adsorbents

such as zeolite pellets, granular activated carbon, etc.
PACKED BEDS cont’d
•The purpose of a packed bed is typically to improve contact
between two phases in a chemical or similar process.

•Packed beds can be used in a chemical reactor, a distillation

process, or a scrubber, but packed beds have also been used to
store heat in chemical plants.
 Packing - Basic Requirements

•chemically inert to the fluids

•strong but without excessive weight

•contain adequate passages (void volume) for both streams without excessive

liquid hold-up or pressure drop

•provide good contact between the liquid and the gas.

reasonable in cost
Types of packing
1) Random Packing
2) Structured Packing
FLUIDIZATION
• Fluidization is a process in which solids are caused to behave
like a fluid by blowing gas or liquid upwards through the
solid-filled reactor.
• In fluidization process a granular material (powder) is
converted from a static solid-like state to a dynamic fluid-like
state.
• In fluidization, a gas or liquid is passed through a bed of solid
particles which is supported on a perforated or porous plate.
FLUIDIZED BEDS

• Fluidized beds are used widely in chemical processing

industries for separations, rapid mass and heat transfer
operations, and catalytic reactions.

• A typical fluidized bed is a cylindrical column that

contains particles and through which fluid, either
gaseous or liquid, flows.
FLUIDIZED BEDS Continued

• The velocity of the fluid is sufficiently high to suspend,

or fluidize, the particles within the column, providing
a large surface area for the fluid to contact, which is
the chief advantage of fluidized beds.
• In the case of fluidized bed reactors, the particles
would contain a catalyst, and for separations, the
particles might be an absorbent or adsorbent.
FLUIDIZED BEDS Continued
• A fluidized bed is a packed bed through which fluid flows at
such a high velocity that the bed is loosened and the particle-
fluid mixture behaves as though it is a fluid.

• Thus, when a bed of particles is fluidized, the entire bed can be

transported like a fluid, if desired.

• Both gas and liquid flows can be used to fluidize a bed of

particles.
FLUIDIZED BEDS Continued

• The most common reason for fluidizing a bed is to obtain

vigorous agitation of the solids in contact with the fluid,
leading to excellent contact of the solid and the fluid and the
solid and the wall.

• Regardless of whether the fluidized bed is used for a

separation or reaction, a key goal is to operate the bed at a
flow rate that optimizes the application.
FLUIDIZED BEDS Continued
• The material fluidized is almost always a solid and
the fluidizing medium is either a liquid or a gas.
• The characteristics and behavior of a fluidized bed are
strongly dependent on both the solid and liquid or gas
properties.
• Nearly all of the significant commercial applications
of fluidized-bed technology concern gas-solid systems.
FLUIDIZED BED
FLUIDIZATION THEORY
• Particles become fluidized when an upward flowing gas
imposes a high enough drag force to overcome the
downward force of gravity.
• The drag force is the frictional force imposed by the gas on
the particle, the particle imposes an equal and opposite drag
force on the gas.
• Fluidization behaviour depends on: Particle size and particle
size distribution, particle density and fluid properties.
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF FLUIDIZATION

• A granular material does not typically flow like a fluid; it can form a
“pile”; but, if fluidizing gas is supplied, granular material can behave
as a liquid:
– Lighter objects float.
– The bed volume is larger in a fluid state
(void fraction )ℇ = Vgas/(Vgas + Vsolid)
– The gas flow rate is typically described by the superficial velocity U
U: (Gas volume flow rate)
( Cross-section area )
– The bed pressure drop balances the overhead weight
FLUIDIZED BED OPERATION
• Porosity increases.
• Bed height increases.
• Fluidization can be sustained until terminal velocity is
reached.
• If the bed has a variety of particles (usually same materials
but different sizes) calculate the terminal velocity for the
smallest particle.
VELOCITY PARAMETERS

• Minimum Fluidization Velocity Umf:

– The superficial velocity that “just” fluidizes; the point where

the bed weight balances the pressure drop.

– Typically you measure Umf to get an accurate value for a

new granular material.
VELOCITY PARAMETERS Continued

• The minimum bubbling velocity Umb:

– The velocity where bubbles first appear.
– Can be equal or greater than Umf.

• The particle terminal velocity Ut:

– Note that the velocity is NOT a uniform profile.
APPLICATION OF FLUIDIZED BED

• Fluidization is widely used in commercial operations; one of

the applications can be as solid catalysts.

• The fluidized bed is one of the best known contacting

methods used in the processing industry, they are suitable for
both small and large scale operations and they allow
continuous processing. There are many well established
operations that utilize this technology as stated in table1.
Table 1: Industrial Applications of Fluidized Beds
ADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS

Fluidizing a bed of catalyst particles can yield to the

following advantages over packed bed:
• Superior heat transfer ability, the heat-transfer rate in
a fluidized bed can be five to ten times greater than
that in a packed bed.
• High heat transfer coefficients between bed and
immersed heating or cooling surfaces. .
ADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS Cont’d

• Uniform temperature distribution due to intensive solid

mixing.
• Uniform (solid) product in batch-wise process because
of intensive solids mixing.
• Ability to process materials with a wide particle size
distribution.
• Easy handling and transport of particles due to fluid-like
behavior.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS

• Fluidized beds typically are more complex to

design, build, and operate than other types of
reactors such as packed beds and stirred tank
reactors.
• Scale up of fluidized beds are difficult.
• Fluidized beds are prone to erosion and particle
attrition caused by the moving particles.
DISADVANTAGES OF FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS Cont’d

• Solids losses can result in significant operating

costs, especially when the solid particles are
expensive catalysts.
• Bubbles also need to be managed, as large
bubbles can travel faster than smaller bubbles in
a fluidized bed, which reduces the mass transfer
between phases.
FLUIDIZATION REGIMES
FLUIDIZATION REGIMES
• When the solid particles are fluidized, the fluidized bed
behaves differently as velocity, gas and solid properties are
varied. It has become evident that there are a number of
regimes of fluidization, as shown in Figure 2.

• When the flow of a gas passed through a bed of particles is

increased continually, a few vibrate, but still within the same
height as the bed at rest. This is called a fixed bed.
FLUIDIZATION REGIMES Continued

• With increasing gas velocity, a point is reached where the

drag force imparted by the upward moving gas equals the
weight of the particles, and the voidage of the bed increases
slightly:
• this is the onset of fluidization and is called minimum
fluidization.
FLUIDIZATION REGIMES Continued

• With a corresponding minimum fluidization velocity Umf,

Increasing the gas flow further, the formation of fluidization
bubbles sets in.

• At this point, a bubbling fluidized bed occurs.

FLUIDIZATION REGIMES Continued
• As the velocity is increased further still, the bubbles in a
bubbling fluidized bed will coalesce and grow as they rise.

• If the ratio of the height to the diameter of the bed is high

enough, the size of bubbles may become almost the same as
diameter of the bed.

• This is called slugging.

FLUIDIZATION REGIMES Continued
• If the particles are fluidized at a high enough gas flow rate,
the velocity exceeds the terminal velocity of the particles.

• The upper surface of the bed disappears and, instead of

bubbles, one observes a turbulent motion of solid clusters
and voids of gas of various sizes and shapes.

• Beds under these conditions are called turbulent beds.

FLUIDIZATION REGIMES Continued

•With further increases of gas velocity, eventually the fluidized bed

becomes an entrained bed in which we have disperse, dilute or lean
phase fluidized bed.

•This amounts to pneumatic transport of solids.

•As the gas velocity of the bed increases the type of fluidization shifts.
 
 GELDART’S CLASSIFICATION
• Not every particle can be fluidized, the behavior of
solid particles in fluidized beds depends mostly on
their size and density.
• Group A particles are typically the easiest to fluidize,
while group C are most difficult due to their cohesive
properties.
• Most particles used in fluidized beds are group A
particles .
 Geldart’s Classification

•A careful observation by Geldart (1973,

1978) is shown in which characteristics
of the four different powder types were
categorized as follows:
Geldart’s Classification A, B, C, D
Geldart’s Classification A, B, C, D
GELDART’S POWDER CLASSIFICATION
GROUP A POWDERS
• Group A is designated as ‘aeratable’ particles.
• These solids fluidize easily, with smooth fluidization at low gas
velocities without the formation of bubbles.
• At higher gas velocity, a point is eventually reached when bubbles
start to form.
• The minimum bubbling velocity, Umb is always greater than Umf.
• Fluid cracking catalysts typically are in this category.
• Most commercial fluidized bed catalytic reactors use Geldart
group A powders.
GROUP B POWDERS
• Group B is called ‘sandlike’ particles and some call it bubbly
particles.
• Bubbles are formed as the gas velocity reaches the minimum
fluidization velocity.
• Bubble size also increases with the excess gas velocity.
• Coalescence is the dominating phenomena for group B.
• Typically used group B materials are glass beads (ballotini)
and coarse sand.
GROUP C POWDERS

• Cohesive.
• Fluidization is extremely difficult.
• Bubble formation will not occur.
• Geldart C powders give a low degree of solid mixing and gas
back-mixing.
• Examples are talc, flour and starch.
GROUP D POWDERS
• Large and/or dense particle powders.
• Undesirable for fluidization operations.
• Large gas flows are needed to get these particles
fluidized.
• Geldart D powders give a low degree of solid mixing
and gas back-mixing.
• Roasting coffee beans, lead shot and some roasting
metal ores are examples of group D materials.
Table 2: Geldart’s classification of powders
Packed Beds

• From a fluid mechanical perspective, the most

important issue is that of the pressure drop
required for the liquid or the gas to flow through
the column at a specified flow rate.
• To calculate this quantity we rely on a friction
factor correlation attributed to Ergun.
Minimum Fluidization Velocity
• Minimum fluidization velocity can be calculated by
balancing the net weight of the bed against the
upward force exerted on the bed, namely the
pressure drop across the bed multiplied by the cross-
sectional area of the bed .
• In doing this balance, we ignore the small frictional
force exerted on the wall of the column by the flowing
fluid.
Fluidization
• To better understand fluidization of a particle bed, it is
necessary to determine what range of flow rates allow
fluidization, i.e the minimum fluidization velocity (um)
and also,
• what flow rates will begin to carry the particles out
the top of the particle chamber , i.e the terminal
velocity (ut).
The Flow Regions
• The ut is the velocity that is large enough to lift a single
particle and carry it out of the fluidized bed. There are three
equations for the drag coefficient corresponding to the three
flow regions:
• laminar, where Re < 1 ,
• transition from laminar to turbulent, where 1 < Re < 500
• turbulent, where 500 < Re < 200,000.This implies there are
three different equations for ut corresponding to these flow
regimes.
Terminal Velosity
Example 1

• Air is moving upward in a bed packed with

spherical coal particles of diameter 0.1mm
and density 10 kg/m . The air properties are
3 3

ρ=2.4kg/m3 and µ=1.9×10-5Pa.s , find the

superficial and settling velocity.
• The void fraction of the bed is 0.38.
Solution
Solution Continued
Example 2

Air ( = 1.22 Kg/m3, = 1.9 X 10 –5pa.s) is flowing in a

fixed bed of a diameter 0.5 m and height 2.5 m. The
bed is packed with spherical particles of diameter 10
mm. The void fraction is 0.38. The air mass flow rate is
0.5 kg/s. Calculate the pressure drop across the bed of
particles.
Solution
Solution Continued
Example 3
Air at 311K is flowing through a packed bed of spheres
having a diameter of 12.7mm. The void fraction of
the bed is 0.38 and the bed has a diameter of 0.61m
and a height of 2.44m. The air enters the bed at 1.10
atm abs. at the rate of 0.358kg/s. Calculate the
pressure drop of the air in the packed bed. The
average molecular weight of the air is 28.95.
Solution
From the tables on the appendix for the physical
properties of air at:
• 1Atm Abs and;
• temperature of 311K , the density and viscosity can be
determined at the desired units.
Solution Cont’d
• Density=1.137 Kg/m3
• Kinematic viscosity= 1.9 X 10 –5pa.s
• Particle diameter=12.7mm
• Void fraction = 0.38
• Bed diameter = 0.61m
• Height = 2.44m
• Mass flow rate = 0.358kg/s
Example 4

• Air at 37.8⁰C and 101.3kPa absolute

pressure flows at a velocity of 23m/s past a
sphere having a diameter of 42mm. What
are the drag coefficient and the force on
the sphere?
Solution
From the tables on the appendix for the physical
properties of air at:
• 101.3kPa and;
• temperature of 37.8⁰C , the density and viscosity can
be determined at the desired units.
Solution Cont’d
• Density=1.137 Kg/m3
• Kinematic viscosity= 1.9 X 10 –5pa.s
• Particle diameter= 42mm
• Void fraction = 0.3
• velocity = 23 m/s
Solution Cont’d
Solution Cont’d

Rep =
Note
Note that:

• For large particles (Dp ≥ 1mm) , inertial effects are important, and the
full Ergun equation must be used to determine Vf. . When in doubt,
use the Ergun equation instead of a simplified version of it.
Elutriation
• Elutriation is a process for separating particles based on their
size, shape and density, using a stream
of gas or liquid flowing in a direction usually opposite to the
direction of sedimentation.
• This method is mainly used for particles smaller than 1 μm.
• The smaller or lighter particles rise to the top (overflow)
because their terminal sedimentation velocities are lower
than the velocity of the rising fluid.