Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 23 views

    Review: - Measures of Central Tendency - Measures of Variation

    Uploaded by

    Ejazriazvirk
    This document provides an overview of key statistical concepts including measures of central tendency, measures of variation, the normal curve, z-scores, and confidence intervals. It discusses how the normal curve and standard deviation can be used to interpret scores relative to other scores in a distribution. It also explains how sampling distributions and the standard error can be used to create confidence intervals to make probabilistic statements about population parameters based on sample data.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Review: - Measures of Central Tendency - Measures of Variation

    Uploaded by

    Ejazriazvirk
    23 views28 pages
    This document provides an overview of key statistical concepts including measures of central tendency, measures of variation, the normal curve, z-scores, and confidence intervals. It discusses how the normal curve and standard deviation can be used to interpret scores relative to other scores in a distribution. It also explains how sampling distributions and the standard error can be used to create confidence intervals to make probabilistic statements about population parameters based on sample data.

    Original Title

    701_5

    Copyright

    © Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)

    Available Formats

    PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    This document provides an overview of key statistical concepts including measures of central tendency, measures of variation, the normal curve, z-scores, and confidence intervals. It discusses how the normal curve and standard deviation can be used to interpret scores relative to other scores in a distribution. It also explains how sampling distributions and the standard error can be used to create confidence intervals to make probabilistic statements about population parameters based on sample data.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    23 views28 pages

    Review: - Measures of Central Tendency - Measures of Variation

    Uploaded by

    Ejazriazvirk
    This document provides an overview of key statistical concepts including measures of central tendency, measures of variation, the normal curve, z-scores, and confidence intervals. It discusses how the normal curve and standard deviation can be used to interpret scores relative to other scores in a distribution. It also explains how sampling distributions and the standard error can be used to create confidence intervals to make probabilistic statements about population parameters based on sample data.

    Copyright:

    Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 28

    Review

    • Measures of Central Tendency


    – Mean, median, mode
    • Measures of Variation
    – Variance, standard deviation
    Variance is defined as

    2 2
    s = Σ ( X - X̄ )
    N
    The Normal Curve
    • The mean and standard deviation, in
    conjunction with the normal curve allow for
    more sophisticated description of the data
    and (as we see later) statistical analysis
    • For example, a school is not that
    interested in the raw GRE score, it is
    interested in how you score relative to
    others.
    • Even if the school knows the average
    (mean) GRE score, your raw score still
    doesn’t tell them much, since in a perfectly
    normal distribution, 50% of people will
    score higher than the mean.
    • This is where the standard deviation is so
    helpful. It helps interpret raw scores and
    understand the likelihood of a score.
    • So if I told you if I scored 710 on the
    quantitative section and the mean score is
    591. Is that good?
    • It’s above average, but who cares.
    • What if I tell you the standard deviation is
    148?
    • What does that mean?
    • What if I said the standard deviation is 5?
    • Calculating z-scores
    Converting raw scores to z scores
    What is a z score? What does it represent

    Z = (x-µ) / σ

    Converting z scores into raw scores


    X=zσ+µ

    Z = (710-563)/140 = 147/140 = 1.05


    Finding Probabilities under the Normal
    Curve

    So what % of GRE takers scored above and


    below 710?

    The importance of Table A

    Why is this important? Inferential Statistics


    (to be cont.)
    Stuff you don’t need to know:

    pi = ≈3.14159265
    e = ≈2.71
    Probability and the Normal Curve

    A. What is a Probability Distribution

    -How does it differ from a freq. distribution?


    -Theory vs. Empirical Observations

    B. The normal curve represents a probability distribution

    -The area under the curve


    -Theory v. Reality
    -allows us to make probabilistic statements regarding a
    distribution
    The Normal Curve and Sampling

    A. A sample will (almost) always be different from


    the true population

    B. This is called “sampling error”

    C. The difference between a sample and the true


    population, regardless of how well the survey
    was designed or implemented

    D. Different from measurement error or sample bias


    Sampling distribution of Means
    • The existence of sampling error means
    that if you take a 1000 random samples
    from a population and calculate a 1000
    means and plot the distribution of those
    means you will get a consistent distribution
    that has the following characteristics:
    Characteristics of a Sampling
    Distribution
    • 1. the distribution approximates a normal curve
    • 2. the mean of a sampling distribution of means
    is equal to the true population
    • 3. the standard deviation of a sampling
    distribution is smaller than the standard
    deviation of the population. Less variation in
    the distribution because we are not dealing with
    raw scores but rather central tendencies.
    Why is the normal curve so
    important?
    • If we define probability in terms of the
    likelihood of occurrence, then the normal
    curve can be regarded as a probability
    distribution (the probability of occurrence
    decreases as we move away from the
    center).
    • With this notion, we can find the probability
    of obtaining a raw score in a distribution,
    given a certain mean and SD.
    Probability and the Normal
    Curve
    In chapter 6 – we are not interested in the
    distribution of raw scores but rather the
    distribution of sample means and making
    probability statements about those sample
    means.
    Probability and the Sampling
    Distribution
    Why is making probabilistic statements about
    a central tendency important?
    • 1. it will allow us to engage in inferential
    statistics (later in ch. 7)
    • 2. it allows us to produce confidence
    intervals
    Example of number 1:
    • President Ashley states that the average
    salary of a new UNLV graduate is
    $60,000. We are skeptical and test this by
    taking a random sample of a 100 UNLV
    students. We find that the average is only
    $55,000. Do we declare Harter a liar?
    Not Yet!!!!
    We need to make a probabilistic statement
    regarding the likelihood of Harter’s
    statement. How do we do that?
    With the aid of the standard error of the
    mean we can calculate confidence
    intervals - the range of mean values within
    with our true population mean is likely to
    fall.
    How do we do that?
    • First, we need the sample mean
    • Second, we need the standard deviation of
    the sampling distribution of means (what’s
    another name for this?)
    • a.k.a standard error of the mean
    What’s the Problem?
    • The problem is…
    • We don’t have the standard deviation of
    the sampling distribution of means?
    • What do we do?
    First – let’s pretend
    • Let’s pretend that I know the Standard Deviation
    of the Sampling Distribution of Means (a.k.a. the
    standard error of the mean). It’s 3000
    • For a 95% confidence interval we multiply the
    standard error of the mean by 1.96 and add &
    subtract that product to our sample mean
    • Why 1.96?
    • What’s the range?
    So is President Ashley Lying?
    CI = Mean + or – 1.96 (SE)

    = 55,000 +/- 1.96 (3000)

    = 55,000 +/- 5880 = $49,120 to 60,880


    Let’s stop pretending
    • We Can Estimate the Standard Error of
    the Mean.
    – Divide the standard deviation of the sample
    by √N-1

    • Multiply this estimate by t rather than 1.96


    and then add this product to our sample
    mean.

    • Why t?
    The t Distribution
    • Empirical testing and models shows that a
    standard deviation from a sample
    underestimates the standard deviation of
    the true population
    • This is why we use N-1 not N when
    calculating the standard deviation and the
    standard error
    • So in reality, we are calculating t-scores,
    not z-scores since we are not using the
    true sd.
    • So when we are using a sample and
    calculating a 95% confidence interval (CI)
    we need to multiply the standard error by t,
    not 1.96
    • How do we know what t is?
    • Table in back of book
    • Df = N - 1
    Confidence Intervals for
    Proportions
    Calculate the standard error of the
    proportion:

    P 1  P 
    Sp =

    N
    95% conf. Interval =
    P +/- (1.96)Sp
    Example
    • National sample of 531 Democrats and
    Democratic-leaning independents, aged
    18 and older, conducted Sept. 14-16, 2007
    • Clinton 47%; Obama 25%; Edwards 11%
    • P(1-P) = .47(1-.47) = .47(.53) = .2491
    • Divide by N = .2491/531 = .000469
    • Take square root = .0217
    • 95% CI = .47 +/- 1.96 (.0217)
    • .47 +/- .04116 or 0.429 to .511
    Midterm
    • Key terms from Schutt chapters 1-5
    • Statistical Calculations by hand
    – Mean, Median, Mode
    – Variance/Standard Deviation
    – Z-scores
    – Standard errors and confidence intervals
    using z or t

    You might also like